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United States Office of Air Quality EPA-454/R-00-002 

Environmental Protection Planning and Standards March 2000 

Agency Research Triangle Park, NC 27711 

AIR 


SEPA NATIONAL AIR POLLUTANT 
EMISSION TRENDS, 

1900 - 1998 








U. S. EPA and the States - 

Working Together for Cleaner Air! 







LC Control Number 



00 327858 

\ 2- I 4 ^ 




































NATIONAL AIR POLLUTANT 
EMISSION TRENDS 


1900 -1998 


Disclaimer 


THIS REPORT HAS BEEN REVIEWED BY THE OFFICE OF AIR QUALITY PLANNING AND 
STANDARDS. MENTION OF TRADE NAMES OR COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS DOES NOT 
CONSTITUTE ENDORSEMENT OR RECOMMENDATION FOR USE. 


/ L> 

» < 5 *? 

. //^V> S 3 


ii ■ Disclaimer 




Foreword 


This document presents the most recent estimates of national emissions of the criteria air pollutants. The emissions of each 
pollutant are estimated for many different source categories, which collectively account for all anthropogenic emissions. The 
report presents the total emissions from all 50 States and from each EPA region in the country. These estimates are updated 
annually. 

This report tracks changes in national emissions since passage of the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990. The emission 
trends are the net effect of many factors, including changes in the nation's economy and in industrial activity, technology, 
consumption of fuels, traffic, and other activities that cause air pollution. The trends also reflect changes in emissions as a result 
of air pollution regulations and emission controls. These reports will serve as a measure of our nation's progress in reducing air 
pollution emissions as a result of mandatory and voluntary controls and of continuous changes in national activity. 

In addition to the extensive coverage of criteria air pollutant emissions from anthropogenic sources in the United States, this 
year’s report continues to provide limited coverage of State-derived biogenic, greenhouse gas, and air toxic emissions, and 
emissions for Canada and Europe. Preliminary estimates are presented for the years 1990 through 1998. Final estimates 
(including refinements to the data used to estimate emissions) will be presented in future reports. 


Foreword ■ iii 




[This page intentionally left blank.] 


Contents 


Tables.viii 

Figures.. 

Acronyms and. Abbreviations. xii 

Acknowledgement.xv 

Executive Summary.ES-1 

ES. 1 WHAT INFORMATION IS PRESENTED IN THIS REPORT?.ES-1 

ES.2 WHAT ARE THE CURRENT EMISSION LEVELS? .ES-1 

ES.3 WHAT ARE THE TRENDS IN POLLUTANT EMISSIONS?.ES-1 

ES.4 REFERENCES.ES-2 

1.0 Introduction .1-1 

1.1 WHAT INFORMATION IS PRESENTED IN THIS REPORT? .1-1 

1.2 WHAT ARE THE HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF CRITERIA POLLUTANTS?.1-1 

1.3 WHAT ENHANCEMENTS HAVE BEEN MADE TO THE REPORT?.1-2 

1.4 HOW IS THE REPORT STRUCTURED?.1-3 

1.5 REFERENCES .1-5 

2.0 1998 Emissions .2-1 

2.1 WHAT EMISSIONS DATA ARE PRESENTED IN THIS CHAPTER?.2-1 

2.2 HOW HAVE EMISSION ESTIMATES CHANGED FROM 1996 TO 1998 AND WHY?.2-1 

2.2.1 What Sources Are the Main Contributors to 1998 CO Emissions?.2-1 

2.2.2 What Sources Are the Main Contributors to 1998 NO x Emissions? .2-2 

2.2.3 What Sources Are the Main Contributors to 1998 VOC Emissions? .2-2 

2.2.4 What Sources Are the Main Contributors to 1998 S0 2 Emissions? .2-2 

2.2.5 What Sources Are the Main Contributors to 1998 Particulate Matter (PM 10 and PM 25 ) Emissions? .... 2-3 

2.2.6 What Sources Are the Main Contributors to 1998 Pb Emissions? .2-3 

2.2.7 What Sources Are the Main Contributors to 1998 NH 3 Emissions?.2-3 

2.3 HOW DOES EPA ESTIMATE AND REPORT SPATIAL EMISSIONS? .2-4 

2.3.1 How Does My State Compare in Rank to Other States?.2-4 

2.4 WHAT ARE THE LARGEST POINT SOURCES IN THE INVENTORY?.2-4 

2.5 REFERENCES .2-5 

3.0 National Emissions Trends, 1900 to 1998 . 3-1 

3.1 WHAT DATA ARE PRESENTED IN THIS CHAPTER?.3-1 

3.2 WHEN DID AIR POLLUTION CONTROL EFFORTS BEGIN AND HOW HAVE THEY EVOLVED? .3-1 

3.3 WHAT ARE THE GENERAL HISTORICAL EMISSIONS TRENDS?.3-2 

3.3.1 How Have CO Emissions Changed?.3-2 

3.3.2 How Have NO x and VOC Emissions Changed?.3-3 

3.3.3 How Have S0 2 Emissions Changed? .3-3 


Contents ■ v 








































National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 -1998 


3.3.4 How Have PM 10 Emissions Changed?.3-3 

3.3.5 How Have PM, 5 Emissions Changed? .3-3 

3.3.6 How Have Pb Emissions Changed? .3-3 

3.3.7 How Have NH 3 Emissions Changed?.3-3 

3.4 HOW HAVE EMISSIONS IN THE MAJOR SOURCE CATEGORIES CHANGED ?.3-3 

3.4.1 How Have Emissions in the Stationary Source Fuel Combustion Categories Changed? .3-4 

3.4.2 How Have Emissions in the Industrial Process Categories Changed? .3-5 

3.4.3 How Have Emissions in the On-road Vehicle Categories Changed?.3-6 

3.4.4 How Have Emissions in the Non-road Engines and Vehicle Categories Changed? .3-7 

3.4.5 How Have Emissions in the Miscellaneous Categories Changed? . 3-8 

3.5 HOW HAVE EMISSIONS IN THE FUGITIVE DUST CATEGORIES CHANGED?.3-8 

3.6 REFERENCES .3-8 

4.0 Section 406 of the Clean Air Act Amendments: Industrial S0 2 Emissions .4-1 

4.1 WHY A SEPARATE CHAPTER FOR INDUSTRIAL SO, EMISSIONS?.4-1 

4.1.1 What Source Categories Are Industrial Sources?.4-1 

4.2 WHY USE 1996 AS THE BASE YEAR?.4-2 

4.3 HOW DID EPA PROJECT EMISSIONS?.4-3 

4.4 WHAT IS THE TREND IN INDUSTRIAL SO, EMISSIONS?.4-3 

4.4.1 Will the Cap Be Exceeded?.4-3 

4.5 WHAT ARE THE BENEFITS FROM DESULFURIZATION OF DIESEL FUELS?.4-3 

4.5.1 Why Are Current 1993 Emissions Without Desulfurization Higher Than the Values Presented in the 1995 

Report to Congress? .4-4 

4.6 REFERENCES .4-4 

5.0 National Criteria Pollutant Estimation Methodologies .5-1 

5.1 WHAT INFORMATION IS PRESENTED IN THIS CHAPTER?.5-1 

5.2 WHERE DO I GET INFORMATION ON THE METHODS USED TO ESTIMATE EMISSIONS FOR SOURCES 

WHOSE METHODS DID NOT CHANGE? .5-1 

5.3 WHAT OTHER THINGS SHOULD I KNOW ABOUT THE TRENDS ESTIMATION METHODS? .5-1 

5.4 WHAT SOURCE CATEGORIES ARE ESTIMATED USING METHODS THAT DIFFER FROM THE 

PREVIOUS REPORT? .5-2 

5.5 HOW WERE EMISSIONS FROM NON-ROAD SOURCES ESTIMATED?.5-2 

5.5.1 What Types of Sources are Included in the NONROAD Model?.5-2 

5.5.2 What Years Were Estimated?.5-2 

5.5.3 Were There Differences in the Methods Used to Calculate Non-road Emissions for Different Years? .. 5-2 

5.5.4 Were There Non-road Emission Sources That Were Not Estimated Using the NONROAD Model? .... 5-3 

5.5.5 How Were Emissions Estimated for Categories Discussed in Section 5.5.4 Above? .5-3 

5.5.6 Were Any Pollutant Estimates Prepared Differently for Non-road Sources? .5-4 

5.6 WHAT CHANGES WERE MADE IN THE METHOD USED TO ESTIMATE NONUTELITY POINT AND 

AREA SOURCE EMISSIONS?.5-5 

5.6.1 What Steps Were Required to Incorporate State PEI Data Into the NET? .5-5 

5.6.2 How Many States Submitted Data for the 1996 PEI Effort?.5-5 

5.6.3 Were Any State-Supplied Data Rejected in the QC Phase?.5-6 

5.6.4 What Types of Data Were Augmented in the Data Augmentation Step?.5-6 

5.6.5 What Quality Assurance Steps Were Taken to Ensure That the State Data Were Incorporated 

Correctly? .5-6 

5.6.6 What Did EPA Do With Comments Received by the States? .5-6 

5.6.7 Was There Any Additional Data Augmentation? .5-7 

5.6.8 Were There Emissions From Any Sources Submitted by the States That Were Not Incorporated into the 

NET?.5-7 

5.6.9 How Were Nonutility Point and Area Sources for 1997 and 1998 Developed ? .5-7 

5.7 WHAT OTHER METHODOLOGY CHANGES WERE THERE?.5-8 

5.7.1 What Changes Were Made in How Agricultural Livestock Emissions Were Calculated ? .5-8 

5.7.2 What Changes Were Made in How Structural Fire Emissions Were Calculated?.5-9 


vi ■ Contents 



















































National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


5.7.3 What Changes Were Made in How Prescribed Burning Emissions Were Calculated?.5-9 

5.7.4 How Did EPA Account for Emissions from Heavy-Duty Diesel Engines that Used the NO x Defeat 

Device? .5-9 

5.9 REFERENCES .5-10 

6.0 Biogenic Emissions .6-1 

6.1 WHAT EMISSIONS DATA DOES EPA PRESENT IN THIS CHAPTER? .6-1 

6.2 HOW WERE THESE EMISSIONS GENERATED?.6-1 

6.3 WHY DO THESE EMISSIONS VARY? .6-1 

6.4 HOW DOES TEMPERATURE AFFECT EMISSIONS?.6-1 

6.5 HOW DOES LAND USE AFFECT EMISSIONS? .6-1 

6.6 WHAT IS THE UNCERTAINTY ASSOCIATED WITH THESE ESTIMATES?.6-1 

6.7 REFERENCES .6-1 

7.0 Hazardous Air Pollutants.7-1 

7.1 WHAT INFORMATION IS PRESENTED IN THIS CHAPTER?.7-1 

7.2 WHAT ARE THE HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF HAPs? .7-1 

7.3 WHY ARE AIR TOXICS INVENTORIES NEEDED?.7-1 

7.3.1 Which EPA Regulatory Activities Use HAP Emission Inventories?.7-1 

7.4 WHAT IS EPA’S PLAN TO GATHER THE NECESSARY TOXICS DATA? .7-2 

7.5 WHAT IS THE NTI?.7-3 

7.5.1 How was the NTI Developed?.7-3 

7.5.2 What are the NTI Base Years?.7-3 

7.5.3 How are Emissions Allocated to Source Types and Counties?.7-4 

7.5.4 What are Urban/Rural Allocations? .-.7-4 

7.5.5 What Changes Have Been Made Since the Last Trends Report? .7-5 

7.6 HOW ARE THE EMISSIONS SUMMARIZED? .7-5 

7.6.1 What Individual Pollutant Detail is Given? .7-5 

7.7 REFERENCES .7-6 

8.0 National Greenhouse Gas Emissions.8-1 

8.1 WHAT INFORMATION IS PRESENTED IN THIS CHAPTER?.8-1 

8.2 WHAT ARE THE RECENT TRENDS IN U.S. GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS?.8-1 

8.3 WAS A MORE DETAILED ANALYSIS OF INDUSTRIAL EMISSIONS CONDUCTED?.8-2 

8.3.1 What Data Were Used in this Analysis? .8-2 

8.3.2 What are the Results? .8-3 

8.3.3 What Methodologies were Utilized?.8-3 

8.4 REFERENCES .8-4 

9.0 International Emissions .9-1 

9.1 WHAT DATA ARE PRESENTED IN THIS CHAPTER?.9-1 

9.2 WHAT EUROPEAN EMISSIONS ARE PRESENTED?.9-1 

9.3 WHAT CANADIAN EMISSIONS ARE PRESENTED?.9-1 

9.4 REFERENCES .9-2 

Appendix A National Emissions (1970 to 1998) by Tier 3 Source Category and Pollutant. A-l 

Index . Index-1 


Contents ■ vii 













































Tables 


ES-1. 1997 and 1998 National Annual Emission Estimates for Criteria Air Pollutants .ES-3 

ES-2. 1998 National Annual Emission Estimates for PM 25 , Ammonia, and 1990-1993 Hazardous Air Pollutants .... ES-3 

ES-3. Annual Criteria Air Pollutant Emission Estimates for Canada (1995) and Europe (1996) .ES-3 

ES-4. Percentage Change in National Emissions.ES-4 

1- 1. Major Source Categories.1-6 

2- 1. 1998 National Point and Area Emissions by Source Category and Pollutant .2-6 

2- 2. Anthropogenic 1998 State-level Emissions and Rank for CO, NO x , VOC, SO,, PM 10 , PM 25 , and NH 3 .2-8 

3- 1. Total National Emissions of Carbon Monoxide, 1940 through 1998 . 3-9 

3-2. Total National Emissions of Nitrogen Oxides, 1940 through 1998 . 3-10 

3-3. Total National Emissions of Volatile Organic Compounds, 1940 through 1998 . 3-11 

3-4. Total National Emissions of Sulfur Dioxide, 1940 through 1998 . 3-12 

3-5. Total National Emissions of Directly Emitted Particulate Matter (PM 10 ), 1940 through 1998 . 3-13 

3-6. Total National Emissions of Directly Emitted Particulate Matter (PM, 5 ), 1990 through 1998 . 3-14 

3-7. Total National Emissions of Lead, 1970 through 1998 . 3-15 

3-8. Total National Emissions of Ammonia, 1990 through 1998 . 3-16 

3-9. Carbon Monoxide Federal Emission Standards, 1970 to 1991 .3-17 

3-10. Nitrogen Oxide and Volatile Organic Compound Federal Emission Limits for Light-Duty Vehicles, 1972 to 19913-17 

3-11. Nitrogen Oxide and Volatile Organic Compound Federal Emission Limits for Light-Duty Trucks, 1972 to 1991 3-18 

3-12. Federal Test Procedure Exhaust Emissions Standards and Schedule for Light-Duty Vehicles and Light-Duty Trucks, 

1992 to 1998 . 3-18 

3- 13. Total National Emissions by Pollutant and Year .3-19 

4- 1. Industrial S0 2 Tier Source Categories.4-5 

4-2. Industrial S0 2 Point and Area Data Source Submittals by States .4-6 

4- 3. Industrial S0 2 Projected Emissions by Selected Source Categories .4-7 

5- 1. Emission Estimation Methods That Have Changed Since the Last Report.5-11 

5-2. Point and Area Source Data Submitted.5-12 

5- 3. Utility Boiler Emissions Data Sources for NO x and SO, by Year .5-14 

6- 1. Biogenic Volatile Organic Compound Emissions by State .6-2 

6-2. Biogenic Nitric Oxide Emissions by State.6-3 

6-3. Biogenic Volatile Organic Compound Seasonal Allocation, 1988 to 1996 . 6-4 

6- 4. Biogenic Nitric Oxide Seasonal Allocation, 1988 to 1996 . 6-4 

7- 1. Hazardous Air Pollutants Included in the Baseline NTI (version 9901). 7-7 

7-2. List of Urban HAPS for the Integrated Urban Air Toxics Strategy (“Urban HAPS List”) .7-10 

7-3. Baseline NTI Emissions for Urban, Rural, and Major Source Categories by HAP.7-11 

7-4. Baseline NTI (1990 to 1993) 188 HAPS by Urban and Rural Designation and Source Sector (Point, Area, On-road, 

and Non-road) . 7-15 

7-5. Baseline NTI (1990 to 1993) 188 HAPs by State (Point, Area, On-road, and Non-road).7-23 

7-6. Baseline NTI (1990 to 1993) 33 HAPs by State (Point, Area, On-road, and Non-road).7-24 

7-7. Baseline NTI (1990 to 1993) 33 HAPs by Tier 1.7-25 

7- 8. Baseline NTI (1990 to 1993) 33 HAPs by Tier 1 and Tier 2.7-27 

8- 1. Recent Trends in U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks (MMTCE).8-5 

8-2. Annual Percent Change in CO, Emissions from Fossil Fuel Combustion for Selected Sectors and Fuels.8-6 

8-3. Carbon Coefficients, MMTCE/QBtu.8-6 

8- 4. Carbon Dioxide Emissions in the U.S., 1994 (MMTCE) .8-7 

9- 1. 1996 Emission Estimates for Europe by Country and Pollutant .9-3 


viii ■ Tables 












































National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


9-2. 1996 Emission Estimates for Austria and the Czech Republic by CORINAIR/EMEP Source Category and 

Pollutant.9-4 

9-3. 1996 Emission Estimates for Denmark and Finland by CORINAIR/EMEP Source Category and Pollutant.9-5 

9-4. 1996 Emission Estimates for France and Germany by CORINAIR/EMEP Source Category and Pollutant.9-6 

9-5. 1996 Emission Estimates for Greece and Ireland by CORINAIR/EMEP Source Category and Pollutant .9-7 

9-6. 1996 Emission Estimates for Luxembourg and the Netherlands by CORINAIR/EMEP Source Category and 

Pollutant.9-8 

9-7. 1996 Emission Estimates for Norway and Slovenia by CORINAIR/EMEP Source Category and Pollutant .9-9 

9-8. 1996 Emission Estimates for the United Kingdom by CORINAIR/EMEP Source Category and Pollutant.9-10 

9-9. 1996 Emission Estimates for Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, and Denmark by EE A Source Category and 

Pollutant.9-11 

9-10. 1996 Emission Estimates for Estonia, Finland, France, and Germany by EEA Source Category and Pollutant . . 9-12 

9-11. 1996 Emission Estimates for Greece, Ireland, Luxembourg, and Netherlands by EEA Source Category and 

Pollutant.9-13 

9-12. 1996 Emission Estimates for Norway, the Slovenia, Spain, and Sweden by EEA Source Category and Pollutant 9-14 

9-13. 1996 Emission Estimates for the United Kingdom by EEA Source Category and Pollutant.9-15 

9-14. 1995 Emissions for Canada by Major Source Category .9-15 

9-15. 1995 Emissions for Canada by Province.9-15 

A-l. Carbon Monoxide Emissions. A-2 

A-2. Nitrogen Oxide Emissions. A-7 

A-3. Volatile Organic Compound Emissions. A-ll 

A-4. Sulfur Dioxide Emissions . A-19 

A-5. Directly Emitted Particulate Matter (PM 10 ) Emissions . A-23 

A-6. Directly Emitted Particulate Matter (PM 2 5 ) Emissions. A-29 

A-7. Lead Emissions . A-34 

A-8. Ammonia (NH 3 ) Emissions. A-37 


Tables ■ ix 
























Figures 


ES-1. Trend in National Emissions, NITROGEN OXIDES, VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS, SULFUR DIOXIDE 
(1900 to 1998), and Directly Emitted PARTICULATE MATTER (PM 10 [nonfugitive dust sources]; 

1940 to 1998).ES-5 

ES-2. Trend in National Emissions, CARBON MONOXIDE (1940 to 1998), and LEAD (1970 to 1998) .ES-6 

2-1. 1998 National CARBON MONOXIDE Emissions by Principal Source Categories.2-9 

2-2. 1998 National NITROGEN OXIDE Emissions by Principal Source Categories .2-10 

2-3. 1998 National VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUND Emissions by Principal Source Categories .2-11 

2-4. 1998 National SULFUR DIOXIDE Emissions by Principal Source Categories.2-12 

2-5. 1998 Directly Emitted National PARTICULATE MATTER (PM 10 ) Emissions by Principal Source Categories for 

Nonfugitive Dust Sources .2-13 

2-6. 1998 Directly Emitted National PARTICULATE MATTER (PM 25 ) Emissions by Principal Source Categories for 

Nonfugitive Dust Sources .2-14 

2-7. 1998 National LEAD Emissions by Principal Source Categories.2-15 

2-8. 1998 National AMMONIA Emissions by Principal Source Categories .2-16 

2-9. Density Map of 1998 CARBON MONOXIDE Emissions by County .2-17 

2-10. Density Map of 1998 NITROGEN OXIDES Emissions by County.2-18 

2-11. Density Map of 1998 VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUND Emissions by County.2-19 

2-12. Density Map of 1998 SULFUR DIOXIDE Emissions by County.2-20 

2-13. Density Map of 1998 PARTICULATE MATTER (PM 10 ) Emissions by County.2-21 

2-14. Density Map of 1998 PARTICULATE MATTER (PM 2 5 ) Emissions by County .2-22 

2- 15. Density Map of 1998 AMMONIA Emissions by County.2-23 

3- 1. Trend in Gross Domestic Product, Population, Vehicle Miles Traveled, Total Fuel Consumption, Combined 

VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUND and NITROGEN OXIDES Emissions, and SULFUR DIOXIDE Emissions, 

1970 to 1998 . 3-21 

3-2. Trend in CARBON MONOXIDE Emissions, 1940 to 1998 . 3-22 

3-3. Trend in NITROGEN OXIDE Emissions, 1940 to 1998 . 3-23 

3-4. Trend in VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUND Emissions, 1940 to 1998 . 3-24 

3-5. Trend in SULFUR DIOXIDE Emissions, 1940 to 1998 . 3-25 

3-6. Trend in Directly Emitted PARTICULATE MATTER (PM 10 ) Emissions Excluding Fugitive Dust Sources, 1940 to 

1998 . 3-26 

3-7. Trend in Directly Emitted PARTICULATE MATTER (PM 25 ) Emissions Excluding Fugitive Dust Sources, 1990 to 

1998 . 3-27 

3-8. Trend in LEAD Emissions, 1970 to 1998 . 3-28 

3- 9. Trend in AMMONIA Emissions, 1990 to 1998 . 3-29 

4- 1. S0 2 Emissions by Major Industrial Source Category, 1996 . 4-8 

4-2. Industrial S0 2 Emissions (1900 to 2020). 4-9 

4-3. S0 2 Emissions by Major Industrial Source Category, 2020 . 4-10 

4- 4. On-Road Emissions With and Without Desulfurization, 1993-1998 . 4-11 

5- 1. States Submitting Point and/or Area Source Data for the 1996 PEI .5-15 

6- 1. Density Map of NITROGEN OXIDES 1997 Biogenic Emissions by County .6-5 

6- 2. Density Map of VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUND 1997 Biogenic Emissions by County .6-6 

7- 1. 1996 NTI State Data Summary .7-42 

7-2. U.S. Counties by Urban and Rural Designation . 7-43 

7-3. Baseline NTI (1990 to 1993) National Emissions by Urban vs. Rural .7-44 

7-4. Baseline NTI (1990 to 1993) National Emissions of 188 HAPs by Urban vs. Rural .7-45 


x ■ Figures 










































National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


7-5. Baseline NTI (1990 to 1993) National Emissions of 33 HAPs by Urban vs. Rural .7-46 

7-6. Baseline NTI (1990 to 1993) 188 HAP Emissions by State and Source Sector .7-47 

7-7. Baseline NTI (1990 to 1993) 33 HAP Emissions by State and Source Sector .7-48 

7-8. Summed Baseline NTI (1990 to 1993) Emissions of 188 HAPs per Square Mile for U.S. Counties .7-49 

7-9. Summed Baseline NTI (1990 to 1993) Emissions of 33 HAPs per Square Mile for U.S. Counties .7-50 

7- 10. Summary Baseline NTI (1990 to 1993) of 33 HAPs National Emissions Percentage by Source Sector.7-51 

8- 1. U.S. Carbon Dioxide Emissions by Sector (1994). 8-8 

8-2. U.S. Carbon Dioxide Emissions from Industry (1994) . 8-9 

8-3. U.S. Carbon Dioxide Emissions by End-Use Sector (1994) . 8-10 


Figures ■ xi 













Acronyms and Abbreviations 


AIRS 

AIRS/AFS 

ARD 

BACT 

BEA 

BEIS2 

BTS 

Btu 

CAA 

CAAA 

CEM 

CFCs 

ch 4 

CHIEF 

CNG 

CO 

C0 2 

CORINAIR 

DOE 

DOT 

EEA 

EFIG 

EGAS 

EIA 

EIIP 

EMEP 

Aerometric Information Retrieval System 

AIRS Facility Subsystem 

Acid Rain Division 

best available control technology 

U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis 

Biogenic Emission Inventory System version 2 

U.S. DOT, Bureau of Transportation 

British thermal unit 

Clean Air Act 

Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 
continuous emission monitor(ing) 
chloroflurocarbons 

methane 

Clearinghouse for Inventories and Emission Factors 
compressed natural gas 
carbon monoxide 

carbon dioxide 

Coordination of Environmental Air 

Department of Energy 

Department of Transportation 

European Environment Agency 

EPA, OAQPS, Emission Factor and Inventory Group 

Economic Growth Analysis System 

U.S. DOE, Energy Information Administration 

Emission Inventory Improvement Program 

Cooperative Programme for Monitoring and Evaluation of the Long Range Transmission of Air 
Pollutants in Europe 

EPA 

ES 

ETC/AEM 

ETS 

FAA 

FIPS 

FIRE 

FR 

FTP 

GACT 

GCVTC 

GDP 

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 

Executive Summary 

European Topic Center on Air Emissions 

Emissions Tracking System 

Federal Aviation Adminstration 

Federal Information Processing Standards 

Factor Information Retrieval 

Federal Register 

Federal Test Procedure 

generally achievable control technology 

Grand Canyon Visibility Transport Commission 
gross domestic product 

gPg 

gP m 

grams per gallon 
grams per mile 


xii ■ Acronyms and Abbreviations 




National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


GSP 

gross State product 

HAPs 

hazardous air pollutants 

HCFC 

hydrochloroflurocarbon 

HDDV 

heavy-duty diesel vehicle 

HDGV 

heavy-duty gasoline vehicle 

HFCs 

hydro flurocarbons 

ID 

identification (code) 

IPCC 

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 

LDDT 

light-duty diesel truck 

LDDV 

light-duty diesel vehicle 

LDGT 

light-duty gasoline truck 

LDGV 

light-duty gasoline vehicle 

LDT 

light-duty truck 

LDV 

light-duty vehicle 

LPG 

liquefied petroleum gas 

MACT 

maximum available control technology 

MECs 

Manufacturing Consumption of Energy 

MMTCE 

million metric tons carbon-equivalent 

MW 

megawatts 

N 2 0 

nitrous oxide 

NAA 

nonattainment area 

NAAQS 

National Ambient Air Quality Standard 

NADB 

National Allowance Data Base 

NAPAP 

National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program 

NEC 

not elsewhere classified 

NET 

National Emissions Trends (inventory) 

nh 3 

ammonia 

NMVOC 

nonmethane volatile organic compounds 

NO 

nitric oxide 

no 2 

nitrogen dioxide 

NO x 

nitrogen oxides 

NPI 

National Particulates Inventory 

NSPS 

New Source Performance Standards 

NTI 

National Toxics Inventory 

0 3 

ozone 

OAQPS 

EPA, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards 

OMS 

EPA, Office of Mobile Sources 

OTAQ 

EPA’s Office of Transportation and Air Quality 

OTAG 

Ozone Transport Assessment Group 

Pb 

lead 

PCB 

polychlorinated biphenyl 

PEI 

periodic emission inventory 

PFC 

perfluorocarbon 

PM 

particulate matter 

PM 10 

particulate matter less than 10 microns in diameter 

PM 2 . 5 

particulate matter less than 2.5 microns in diameter 

POM 

polycyclic organic matter 

PPm 

parts per million 

psi 

pounds per square inch 


Acronyms and Abbreviations ■ xiii 




National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


QA 

quality assurance 

QC 

quality control 

RACT 

reasonably available control technology 

REMI 

Regional Economic Models, Inc. 

RFG 

reformulated gasoline 

RSD 

Regulatory Support Document 

RVP 

Reid vapor pressure 

see 

source classification code 

SEDS 

State Energy Data System 

sf 6 

sulfur hexafluoride 

SIC 

Standard Industrial Classification (code) 

SIP 

State Implementation Plan 

so 2 

sulfur dioxide 

SUV 

sport utility vehicle 

TP 

total particulates 

tpy 

tons per year 

TRENDS 

The Representative Emissions National Data System 

TRI 

Toxic Release Inventory 

TSDF 

hazardous waste treatment, storage, and disposal facility 

TSP 

total suspended particulate matter 

TTN 

Technology Transfer Network 

UNFCCC 

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 

u.s. 

United States 

USDA 

U.S. Department of Agriculture 

USFS 

USDA Forest Service 

VMT 

vehicle miles traveled 

VOC 

volatile organic compound(s) 


xiv ■ Acronyms and Abbreviations 





Acknowledgement 


This report was prepared with the help of many people. The EPA wishes to acknowledge the assistance of the Emission 
Inventory Trends Team of the Emission Factor and Inventory Group, the National Toxics Inventory Team of the Emission Factor 
and Inventory Group, the Utilities Emissions Representatives of the Clean Air Markets Division; the Nonroad Team of the Office 
of Transportation and Air Quality; and the Annual Reporting of Green House Gases Report Team of the Climate Policy and 
Programs Division; The agency also wishes to acknowledge the data and information that was provided by numerous people 
from Government agencies and private institutions and organizations. This final document was prepared under Contract Number 
68D-70067. 


Acknowledgement ■ xv 




[This page intentionally left blank.] 


Executive Summary 


ES.l WHAT INFORMATION IS 

PRESENTED IN THIS REPORT? 

This report presents the United States (U.S.) 
Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) latest estimates of 
national emissions for criteria air pollutants: carbon monoxide 
(CO), nitrogen oxides (NO x ), volatile organic compounds 
(VOC), sulfur dioxide (S0 2 ), particulate matter (PM) less than 
10 microns in aerodynamic diameter (PM 10 ), particulate matter 
less than 2.5 microns in aerodynamic diameter (PM 25 ), and 
lead (Pb). In addition, estimates of ammonia (NH 3 ), an 
important precursor for secondarily formed particles, are also 
presented. Estimates are presented for the years 1900 to 1998. 
Estimates for three criteria pollutants, NO x , S0 2 , and VOC, 
have been extrapolated back to 1900. Criteria pollutants are 
those for which ambient air standards have been set, based on 
established criteria for risk to human health and/or 
environmental degradation. 

Data on emissions of hazardous air pollutants (HAPs), or 
air toxics, greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide [C0 2 ], methane 
[CHJ, nitrous oxide [N 2 0], hydrofluorocarbons {HFCs], 
perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride [SF 6 ]), and 
biogenic sources are also included in this report for the United 
States. As a point of comparison, data for Canada for 1995 
and for Europe for 1996 are presented for the criteria air 
pollutants. 

Figures ES-1 and ES-2 present the long-term trends in the 
criteria air pollutant emissions from 1900 through 1998. Most 
of the criteria air pollutant emission levels peaked around 
1970. PM 10 emissions peaked earlier (around 1950) since 
smoke and particulates were the first pollutants to be 
regulated. Between 1970 and 1998 emissions for all criteria 
pollutants have generally declined (except for NO x ), even 
though vehicle miles traveled (VMT) and gross domestic 
product (GDP) increased. For the last 2 years, S0 2 has shown 
a small increase in emissions. These air pollution decreases 
are attributable to the Clean Air Act (CAA) regulations 
beginning in 1970 and continuing into the 1990s. (Intermittent 
economic recession and improved manufacturing practices 
have also played a role.) Although not shown in these figures, 
the trend in PM 25 mirrors that of PM, 0 over the period that 
estimates have been made for PM 25 (1990-1998). NH 3 has 
shown a modest increase over this same time period. 


ES.2 WHAT ARE THE CURRENT 
EMISSION LEVELS? 

Tables ES-1 and ES-2 present the most current emission 
estimates for the criteria and other air pollutants in the United 
States. U.S. criteria pollutant emissions decreased for CO, 
VOC, and NO x , and increased for Pb, S0 2 , and PM 10 from the 
previous year. The increase in SO, emission estimates is a 
result of a modest increase in emissions in the electric utility 
and industrial process sectors, probably fueled by the strong 
economy. The reduction in CO and VOC emissions results 
from a sharp decrease in emissions from forest wildfires, as 
well as a decrease in mobile source emissions as a result of the 
use of new fuels (reformulated gasoline, oxygenated fuels, and 
lower Reid vapor pressures [RVP]). Particulate fugitive dust 
emissions from construction sources, paved roads, and 
unpaved roads increased due to the increases in construction 
and VMT. The most recent available Canadian data for 1995 
and Europe for 1996 are summarized in Table ES-3. 

A description of those source categories whose methods 
used for estimating CO, NO x , VOC, SO,, PM 10 , PM 25 , NH 3 , 
and Pb changed during the last year can be found in Chapter 
5 of this report, while information on methods that did not 
change can be found in the National Air Pollutant Emission 
Trends Procedures Document. 1 

ES.3 WHAT ARE THE TRENDS IN 
POLLUTANT EMISSIONS? 

The level and composition of economic activity in the 
nation, demographic influences, meteorological conditions, 
and regulatory efforts to control emissions affect the trends in 
criteria air pollutant emissions. The emissions resulting from 
these economic, demographic, and regulatory influences are 
presented in Figures ES-1 and ES-2. The changes in 
emissions are presented in Table ES-4 for several time periods. 
Up until the 1950s, the greatest influence on emissions were 
economic and demographic. Emissions grew as the economy 
and population increased; emissions declined in periods of 
economic recession. Dramatic declines in emissions in the 
1930s were due to the Great Depression. More recent 
recession in the mid/late-1970s (largely a result from 
disruptions in the world oil markets) and early 1990s also led 
to decreases in emissions. 

Emissions also increase as a result of a shift in the demand 
for various products. For example, the tremendous increase in 


Executive Summary ■ ES-1 




National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


demand for refined petroleum products, especially motor 
gasoline after World War II, increased emissions associated 
with petroleum refining and on-road vehicles. Increased 
economic production as a result of World War II raised 
emissions to levels higher than those of the pre-Depression 
Era. The declines in the 1940s through 1970s in residential 
wood combustion resulted from the abundant supply, low 
relative prices, and convenience of fossil fuel-generated 
electricity. 

In the 1950s the States issued air pollution statutes 
generally targeted toward smoke and particulate emissions. It 
was not until passage of the CAA as amended in 1970 
(Congress passed the original CAA in 1963) that major strides 
were made in reducing air pollution. The 1970 Amendments 
created the EPA and charged it with three major tasks: 1) set 
National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS); 
2) develop motor vehicle emission standards; and 3) set new 
source performance standards (NSPS). As a result of these 
standards, CO, VOC, S0 2 , and Pb emissions were reduced in 
the mid-1970s. 


The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 (CAAA) are 
beginning to effect emission levels. For some source 
categories (such as non-road engines), standards began in 
1996, but some significant emission reductions are not 
expected until after the year 2000. The robust U.S. economy 
in the late 1990s has provided a slight increase in emissions in 
some source sectors, although the influence of these increases 
has been largely offset by regulatory programs. 

Some emission sources such as wildfires and fugitive dust 
have been influenced more by meteorological conditions than 
economic forces. Controls to reduce fugitive dust emissions 
resulting from the CAAA are beginning to take effect, but are 
only applied in the PM nonattainment areas (NAAs). The 
amount of land burned in wildfires varies greatly from 
year-to-year. Overall emission reductions from wildfires are 
a result of the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s (USDA) 
Forest Service support of state efforts in fire prevention and 
early control. For example, in the year 1910, 5,201 fires 
burned approximately 5 million acres of land, whereas in the 
year 1990, 11,950 fires burned only one-third of a million 
acres of land. 

More details on the effects of economic, demographic, 
and regulatory forces on emission levels are explained in 
Chapter 3. 


ES.4 REFERENCES 

1. “National Air Pollutant Emission Trends Procedures Document, 1900-1996,” EPA-454/R-98-008, U.S. Environmental 
Protection Agency. May 1998. 

2. “Historic Emissions of Sulfur and Nitrogen Oxides in the United States from 1900 to 1980,” EPA-600/7-85-009a and b, 
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH. April 1985. 

3. “Historic Emissions of Volatile Organic Compounds in the United States from 1900 to 1985,” EPA-600/7-88-008a, U.S. 
Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH. May 1988. 


ES-2 ■ Executive Summary 





National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


Table ES-1. 1997 and 1998 National 
Annual Emission Estimates for 
Criteria Air Pollutants 
(million short tons) 


Emissions 

Pollutant 1997 1998 


Anthropogenic Emissions 


Carbon Monoxide 

94.41 

89.45 

Lead (thousand short tons) 

3.95 

3.97 

Nitrogen Oxides 

24.82 

24.45 

Particulate Matter (PM 10 ) 

34.23 

34.74 

Miscellaneous and Fugitive 
dust 

30.08 

30.90 

Nonfugitive dust 

4.15 

3.84 

Sulfur Dioxide 

19.62 

19.65 

Volatile Organic Compounds 

18.88 

17.92 

Biogenic Emissions 



Volatile Organic Compounds 

28.19 

NA 

Nitric Oxide 

1.53 

NA 


Table ES-2. 1998 National Annual 
Emission Estimates for PM 25 , Ammonia, 
and 1990-1993 Hazardous Air Pollutants 
(million short tons) 


Pollutant 

Emissions 

Particulate Matter (PM 25 ) 

8.38 

Miscellaneous and 

5.46 

Fugitive dust 

Nonfugitive dust 

2.92 

Ammonia 

4.94 

Hazardous Air Pollutants 

5.92 


Table ES-3. 

Annual Criteria Air Pollutant Emission 
for Canada (1995) and Europe (1996) 
(million short tons) 

Estimates 


Pollutant 

Canada 

Europe 

Carbon Monoxide 

18.89 


55.53 

Nitrogen Oxides 

2.72 


15.31 

Total Particulate Matter 

17.29 


NA 

Sulfur Dioxide 

2.93 


18.53 

Volatile Organic Compounds 

3.94 


16.09 


Executive Summary ■ ES-3 














National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


Table ES-4. Percentage Change in National Emissions 


Year 

Carbon 

Monoxide 

Nitrogen 

Oxides 

Volatile 

Organic 

Compounds 

Sulfur 

Dioxide 

Particulate 

Matter 

(PM in )* 

Miscellaneous 

and 

Fugitive 

Dust** 

Lead 

1900 to 
1998 

NA*** 

-840 

-111 

-97 

NA 

NA 

NA 

1940 to 
1998 

5 

-232 

-4 

2 

76 

NA 

NA 

1970 to 
1998 

31 

-17 

42 

37 

71 

NA 

98 

1988 to 
1998**** 

25 

-1 

26 

15 

26 

45 

44 

1990 to 
1998 

9 

-2 

14 

17 

15 

-26 

20 

1997 to 
1998 

5 

2 

5 

0 

7 

-3 

-1 


Note(s): 


PM, 0 emissions excluding miscellaneous and fugitive dust sources. 

** Miscellaneous sources include agriculture and forestry, fugitive dust includes roads and construction, and natural sources 
include primarily geogenic wind erosion. 

*** NA denotes not available. Negative percent change indicates an increase in emissions. 

**** There are significant changes in fugitive dust emission methodology between the years 1989 and 1990. 


ES-4 ■ Executive Summary 







Figure ES-1. Trend in National Emissions, NITROGEN OXIDES, 
VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS, SULFUR DIOXIDE (1900 to 1998), 

and Directly Emitted PARTICULATE MATTER 
(PM 10 [nonfugitive dust sources]; 1940 to 1998) 


National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900-1998 



(SUO} JJOLjS UOjlljUl) SUOjSSjUJg 


Executive Summary ■ ES-5 


1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 

































Figure ES-2. Trend in National Emissions, CARBON MONOXIDE 

(1940 to 1998), and LEAD (1970 to 1998) 


National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900-1998 


(suoi ijoijs puesnoip) 
suojssjiug pee"i 



(SUO\ IJOljS uonijiu) 
suojssiiug 0pjxouo|/\| uoqjeo 


ES-6 ■ Executive Summary 


Year 





















Chapter 1.0 Introduction 


1.1 WHAT INFORMATION IS PRESENTED 
IN THIS REPORT? 

This report presents the United States (U.S.) 
Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) latest estimates of 
national emissions for criteria air pollutants: carbon monoxide 
(CO), nitrogen oxides (NO x ), volatile organic compounds 
(VOCs [excludes certain nonreactive organic compounds]), 
sulfur dioxide (S0 2 ), particulate matter less than 10 microns 
(PM 10 ), particulate matter less than 2.5 microns (PM 25 ), and 
lead (Pb). Although not a criteria pollutant, emission estimates 
for ammonia (NH 3 ), a compound that plays an important role 
in the secondary formation of particles, are also presented. 
The Clean Air Act (CAA) requires that the EPA Administrator 
publish a list of pollutants that have adverse effects on public 
health or welfare, and are emitted from numerous and diverse 
stationary or mobile sources. For each pollutant, the 
Administrator must compile and publish a “criteria” document. 
The criteria documents are scientific compendia of the studies 
documenting adverse effects of specific pollutants at various 
concentrations in the ambient air. For each pollutant, National 
Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) are set at levels 
that, based on the criteria, protect the public health and the 
public welfare from any known or anticipated adverse effects. 
These regulated pollutants are therefore called “criteria 
pollutants.” We describe some of the health effects in section 
1 . 2 . 

Summaries of ambient air quality measurements collected 
by federal, State, and local agencies, and the status of 
compliance with the NAAQS, can be found in the series of 
annual air quality trends reports, the most recent of which is 
the National Air Quality and Emissions Trends Report, 1998 
(EPA-454/R-00-003). 

Graphs of national emission estimates, beginning in 1900 
for NO x , VOC, and S0 2 , aggregated by major source category, 
are presented in Chapter 3. We provide more detail for these 
pollutants, and CO and PM 10 beginning with 1940. 
Information related to PM 2 5 and NH 3 starts with 1990, the first 
year EPA developed estimates for these pollutants. We 
include additional detail for the current year. This report also 
contains information on estimation methods that we have 
updated during the past year. Revised international emissions 
from Europe and Canada, air toxic emissions, greenhouse gas 
emissions, and biogenic emissions are also presented. 


1.2 WHAT ARE THE HEALTH AND 
ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF 
CRITERIA POLLUTANTS? 

CO enters the bloodstream and reduces the delivery of 
oxygen to the body’s organs and tissues. The health threat 
from CO is most serious for those who suffer from 
cardiovascular disease, particularly those with angina or 
peripheral vascular disease. It affects healthy individuals also 
but only at higher concentration levels. Exposure to elevated 
CO levels is associated with impairment of visual perception, 
work capacity, manual dexterity, learning ability and 
performance of complex tasks. 1 Prolonged exposure to high 
levels can lead to death. 

Nitric oxide (NO) is the principal oxide of nitrogen 
produced in combustion processes; it is readily oxidized in the 
atmosphere to nitrogen dioxide (N0 2 ). Collectively, NO and 
N0 2 are referred to as NO x . N0 2 can imitate the lungs and 
lower resistance to respiratory infection (such as influenza). 
Nitrogen oxides are an important precursor both to ozone (0 3 ) 
and to acidic deposition and may affect both terrestrial and 
aquatic ecosystems. Atmospheric deposition of nitrogen 
(nitrate, NO x , other compounds derived from NOJ leads to 
excess nutrient enrichment problems (eutrophication); 
prominent examples are: Chesapeake Bay and several other 
nationally important estuaries along the East and Gulf Coasts. 2 
Eutrophication can produce multiple adverse effects on water 
quality and the aquatic environment, including increased 
nuisance and toxic algal blooms, excessive phytoplankton 
growth, low or no dissolved oxygen in bottom waters, and 
reduced sunlight causing losses in submerged aquatic 
vegetation critical for healthy estuarine ecosystems. Nitrogen 
oxides are a precursor to the formation of nitrate particulate 
matter (PM) in the atmosphere; this effect is most important in 
western areas. 3 N0 2 and airborne nitrate also contribute to 
pollutant haze, which impairs visibility and can reduce 
residential property values and revenues from tourism. 

VOCs are a principal component in the chemical and 
physical atmospheric reactions that form 0 3 and other 
photochemical oxidants. The reactivity of 0 3 causes health 
problems because it damages biological tissues and cells. 0 3 
is also responsible each year for agricultural crop yield loss in 
the United States of several billion dollars and causes 
noticeable foliar damage in many crops and species of trees. 
Forest and ecosystem studies show that damage is resulting 


1.0 Introduction ■ 1-1 










National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


from current ambient 0 3 levels plus excess nutrient enrichment 
and, in certain high-elevation areas, acidification. 3 

S0 2 is a precursor to the formation of sulfate PM, 
including acid and nonacid aerosols, in the atmosphere. 
Sulfate aerosols make up the largest single component of fine 
particulate matter in most locations in the eastern United 
States. 4 The major health effects of concern associated with 
exposures to high concentrations of SO,, sulfate aerosols, and 
PM, include effects on breathing, respiratory illness and 
symptoms, alterations in the lung’s defenses, aggravation of 
existing respiratory and cardiovascular disease, and mortality. 
Children and the elderly may be particularly sensitive. Also, 
SO, can produce foliar damage on trees and agricultural crops. 

Together NO x and SO, are the major precursors to acidic 
deposition (acid rain), which is associated with several 
environmental and human health effects. These effects include 
acidification of lakes and streams, impacts on forest soils, 
accelerated corrosion of buildings and monuments, and 
visibility impairment plus respiratory effects on humans 
associated with fine sulfate and nitrate particles. 

Based on studies of human populations exposed to 
ambient particle pollution (sometimes in the presence of S0 2 ), 
and laboratory studies of animals and humans, the major 
effects of concern for human health include effects on 
breathing and respiratory symptoms, aggravation of existing 
respiratory and cardiovascular disease, alterations in the 
body’s defense systems against foreign materials, damage to 
lung tissue, carcinogenesis, and premature mortality. 
Particulate matter causes damage to materials and soiling; it is 
a major cause of substantial visibility impairment in many 
parts of the United States. 4 

Fine particles (PM, 5 ) are of health concern because they 
easily reach the deepest recesses of the lungs. Batteries of 
scientific studies have linked fine particles (alone or in 
combination with other air pollutants), with a series of 
significant health problems, including: 

• Premature death 

• Respiratory related hospital admissions and 
emergency room visits 

• Aggravated asthma 

• Acute respiratory symptoms, including aggravated 
coughing and difficult or painful breathing 

• Chronic bronchitis 

• Decreased lung function that can be experienced as 
shortness of breath 

• Work and school absences 5 

Exposure to Pb can occur through multiple pathways, 
including inhalation of air, diet and ingestion of Pb in food, 
water, soil, or dust. Pb accumulates in the body in blood, 
bone, and soft tissue. Because it is not readily excreted, Pb 
also affects the kidneys, liver, nervous system, and blood- 
forming organs. Excessive exposure to Pb may cause 
neurological impairments such as seizures, mental retardation 


and/or behavioral disorders. Even at low doses, Pb exposure 
is associated with changes in fundamental enzymatic, energy 
transfer and homeostatic mechanisms in the body. Fetuses, 
infants, and children are especially susceptible to low doses of 
Pb, often suffering central nervous system damage. Recent 
studies have also shown that Pb may be a factor in high blood 
pressure and subsequent heart disease in middle-aged 
Caucasian males. 6 

NH 3 , in the presence of water in the atmosphere reacts 
with sulfates and nitrates to create ammonium sulfate and 
ammonium nitrate, both of which are particles. Particles 
formed via chemical reactions in the atmosphere are known as 
secondarily formed particles and play an important role in the 
overall PM, 5 particle budget. 

1.3 WHAT ENHANCEMENTS HAVE BEEN 
MADE TO THE REPORT? 

Since 1973, EPA has prepared estimates of annual 
national emissions in order to assess historic trends in criteria 
pollutant emissions. While these .estimates were prepared 
using consistent methodologies and were useful for evaluating 
emission changes from year to year, they did not provide an 
absolute indication of emissions for any given year. 
Beginning with the 1993 Emission Trends Report (containing 
data through 1992), EPA established a goal of preparing 
emission trends that would also incorporate the best available 
annual estimates of emissions. a 

The EPA’s Emission Factor and Inventory Group (EFIG) 
has developed procedures and criteria for replacing Trends 
data with emissions data submitted by States as part of a 
variety of ongoing programs (such as 0 3 State Implementation 
Plan [SIP] submitted data). This report contains data obtained 
from several States through the 1996 periodic emission 
inventory (PEI) data submittals. Information related to how 
these data were incorporated into the National Emission 
Trends (NET) data base is given in Chapter 5. 

The EFIG is also developing a data management and 
reporting system for emissions data. When the system is 
complete, the EFIG can extract the most current State 
inventories of emissions and supplement the gaps with EPA- 
generated attainment area emission inventories. The EFIG has 
already made several changes to the Trends methodology to 
make the transition smoother. 

In this report, there are five distinct time periods: 1900 to 
1939, 1940 to 1984, 1985 to 1989, 1990 to 1996, and 1996 
forward. Since the accuracy and availability of historical data 
is limited, we have not generally made revisions to estimates 
before 1984 (with some exceptions, discussed in Chapter 5). 
However, many changes in current year totals have been 
incoiporated into the reported estimates using State data. 

Please note that methodologies within a given time 

period (especially more recent periods) will also 


1-2 ■ 1.0 Introduction 





vary, as we include more accurate data in the Trends 

data base. 

Although there are many changes to the Trends 
methodology, some aspects have remained constant. For 
example, the 1900 through 1939 NO x , VOC, and S0 2 
estimates are extracted from the National Acid Precipitation 
Assessment Program (NAPAP) historical emissions report. 7,8 
In addition, Pb estimates (1970 to present), and all CO, NO x , 
VOC, SO,, and PM 10 estimates from 1940 to 1984 reported in 
Trends are based upon the previous national “top-down” 
methodology. Continuous emission monitoring (CEM) data 
reported by electric utilities to the Acid Rain Program’s 
Emission Tracking System (ETS) were used, whenever 
available and complete, for NO x , S0 2 , and heat input values 
for the years 1996 and 1997. (These data apply to steam 
generated fossil-fuel units with nameplate capacity of at least 
25 megawatts [MW].) These are some of the most accurate 
data collected by EPA because they represent actual 
monitored, instead of estimated, emissions. 5 

As has been stated in the past several Emission Trends 
Reports, EPA plans to incorporate as much State-derived data 
as possible into the Trends estimates. This report reflects the 
use of State data, specifically those data submitted by various 
States as part of the 1996 PEI reporting effort. 

When data were not available, were deemed inappropriate 
for use in presenting emission Trends, or when EPA felt that 
we had a more robust mechanism for estimating emissions 
from a particular source sector, EPA relied on nationally 
derived estimates. We describe changes made to estimation 
techniques for this year in Chapter 5 of this report. Methods 
used for other source categories that we did not change for this 
year’s report are detailed in the National Air Pollutant 
Emission Trends, Procedures Document, 1900-1996. 9 In 
general we updated the 1996 inventory with State data and 
then projected estimates for 1997 and 1998 based on economic 
or other types of growth indicators (such as the State Energy 
Data System (SEDS) fuel consumption estimates) to develop 
estimates for 1997 and 1998. We also applied reductions 
resulting from the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 
(CAAA) to the 1997 and 1998 estimates. Throughout the 
report we have indicated when the changes in emissions are 
due mainly to methodological changes. 

We have made two other significant enhancements to the 
report. First, the discussions of emission estimates and 
emission trends are oriented around types of sources rather 
than around pollutants. EPA has found that in questions 
related to emissions and emission trends, most requesters want 
information related to how much of a pollutant is emitted by 
a particular source, rather than the total emissions ol a 
pollutant no matter the source. While there are still sections 
that discuss overall emissions by pollutant, there are larger 
sections of the report that we have oriented around the 
following five categories: 


National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 

• combustion; 

• industrial; 

• on-road; 

• non-road; and 

• miscellaneous. 

In particular, these five broader categories are used to 
provide additional clarity for information presented 
graphically. When these broader categories are used, they 
represent emissions from the following Tier categories (see 
section 1.4 and Table 1-1 for Tier category descriptions): 


Category 

Tier 1 Categories Included 

Combustion 

1,2 and 3 

Industrial 

4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10 

On-road 

11 

Non-road 

12 

Miscellaneous 

13 and 14 


Some figures also show an “all other” category. The all other 
category represents the sum of all other Tier category 
emissions that are not specifically shown in the figure. 

The second major change in the document is the usage of 
“plain language.” In June 1998, President Clinton issued a 
memorandum instructing all government agencies to use plain 
language in new documents developed after October 1,1998. 
Plain language is designed to produce documents that have 
logical organization, easy-to-read design features, and use 
common, everyday words (except necessary technical terms), 
“you” and other pronouns, the active .voice (where possible), 
and short sentences (where possible). More information about 
the plain language initiative can be found at: 

http://www.plainlanguage.gov/ 

1.4 HOW IS THE REPORT STRUCTURED? 

Changes made in the format of the October 1995 10 report, 
intended to make the report more comprehensible and 
informative, within the framework of the plain language 
initiative, are maintained for this report. The executive 
summary presents a brief overview of each chapter of the 
report. In this introduction, Chapter 1, we inform the reader of 
changes to the report, the health effects of criteria air 
pollutants, and the structure of the report. A detailed account 
of the current year emissions by pollutant, source category. 
State, nonattainment area (NAA), county, and season and by 
a listing of top-emitting facilities is given in Chapter 2. 
National trends in emissions from 1900 (where available) to 
the current year and demographic, economic, and regulatory 
influences on emission trends are discussed in Chapter 3. 
Information on S0 2 emissions from industrial sources is 


1.0 Introduction ■ 1-3 












National Air Pollutant Emission Trends , 1900 - 1998 


presented in Chapter 4. An explanation of new methods of 
estimating pollutant emissions started during the past year is 
found in Chapter 5. Biogenic NO x and VOC emissions are 
presented in Chapter 6. Emissions from sources, noncriteria 
pollutants, or countries not traditionally part of the Trends 
report are displayed in Chapters 7, 8, and 9. The EPA and 
other governmental agencies developed these emissions. In 
each chapter, numeric superscripts represent references and 
alphabetic superscripts represent endnotes. 

As in last year’s report, all emissions reported in tables 
and figures in the body of the report are in units of thousand 
short tons, except Pb. h The pollutants are presented in the 
order of CO, NO x , VOC, S0 2 , PM 10 , PM 25 , Pb, and NH 3 
throughout this report. We developed emissions at the county 
and Source Classification Code (SCC) level for the years 1985 
to 1998 for most source categories. We then summed these 
emissions to the national Tier level. There are four levels in 
the tier categorization. The first and second level, respectively 
called Tier 1 and Tier 2, are the same for each of the six 
criteria pollutants. [NOTE: Tier 2 in this context should not be 
confused with the recently announced Tier II motor vehicle 
control standards] The third level. Tier 3, is unique for each 
pollutant. The fourth level. Tier 4, is the SCC level. The 
match-up between SCC and all three tier levels can be 
obtained by contacting EFIG (see Note at the bottom of Table 
1-1). Table 1-1 lists the Tier 1 and Tier 2 categories used in 
Chapters 1 through 5 to present the criteria air pollutant 
emission estimates. Tables and figures appear at the end of 
each chapter in the order in which we have discussed them 
within the chapter. Appendix A contains tables listing 
emissions for each of the criteria pollutants by Tier 3 source 
categories. If emissions are reported as zero, the emissions are 
less than 0.5 thousand tons (or 0.5 tons for Pb). “NA” 
indicates that the apportionment of the historic emissions to 
these subcategories is not possible. If a tier category does not 
appear, then emissions are not currently estimated for that 


category (either EPA estimates the emissions as zero or does 
not currently estimate the emissions due to time or resource 
limitations). 

Throughout this report, emission estimates of PM 10 and 
PM 25 are presented by source category as total from all 
sources, including fugitive dust sources, and nonfugitive dust 
sources. Fugitive dust sources are included in the following 
tier categories. 


Tier 1 

Tier 1 Name 

Tier 2 Tier 2 Name 

13 

Natural 

Sources 

02 

Geogenic (wind erosion) 

14 

Miscellaneous 

01 

Agriculture and Forestry (agricultural 
crops or tilling and feedlots) 



07 

Fugitive Dust (paved and unpaved 
roads; unpaved airstrips; 
construction; mining and quarrying; 
wind erosion - industrial; point source 
- haul roads) 


Emissions of NO x are expressed as weight-equivalent 
N0 2 . Thus, we have inflated the actual tons of NO emitted to 
report them as if they were N0 2 . You should therefore assume 
that the molecular weight was that of NO, when using 
numbers in this report. 0 

We report the VOC emissions as the actual weight of 
many different compounds. The relative amounts of the 
individual compounds emitted will determine the average 
molecular weight of a given source category’s emissions. 
Therefore, no equivalent molecular weight standard exists for 
VOC. The VOC emissions referred to in this report exclude 
those organic compounds considered negligibly 
photochemically reactive, according to the EPA definition of 
VOC in the Code of Federal Regulations (40CFR51.100). 11 
Thus, we have not included methane, ethane, and certain other 
organic compounds in the VOC totals. 


1-4'■ 1.0 Introduction 







National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


1.5 REFERENCES 

1. “Air Quality Criteria for Carbon Monoxide,” EPA/600/8-90/045F (NTIS PB93-167492), Office of Health and 
Environment Assessment, Environmental Criteria and Assessment Office, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 
Research Triangle Park, NC. 1991. 

2. “Air Quality Criteria for Oxides of Nitrogen,” EPA/600/8-91/049aF-cF.3v, Office of Health and Environment 
Assessment, Environmental Criteria and Assessment Office, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle 
Park, NC. 1993. 

3. “Air Quality Criteria for Ozone and Other Photochemical Oxidants,” Volume I of III, EPA/600/8-93/004aF, Office of 
Health and Environment Assessment, Environmental Criteria and Assessment Office, U.S. Environmental Protection 
Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC. July 1996. 

4. “Air Quality Criteria for:Particulate Matter and Sulfur Oxides,” EPA/600/8-82/029aF-cF.3v (NTIS PB84-156777). 
Office of Health and Environment Assessment, Environmental Criteria and Assessment Office, U.S. Environmental 
Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC. 1991. 

5. “Health and Environmental Effects of Particulate Matter,” Fact Sheet, Office of Air and Radiation, Office of Air Quality 
Planning and Standards, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC. July 17, 1997. 

6. “Air Quality Criteria for Lead,” EPA/600/8-83/028aF-dF.4v (NTIS PB87-142378), Office of Health and Environment 
Assessment, Environmental Criteria and Assessment Office, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle 
Park, NC. 1991. 

7. “Historic Emissions of Sulfur and Nitrogen Oxides in the United States from 1900 to 1980,” EPA-600/7-85-009a and b, 
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC. April 1985. 

8. “Historic Emissions of Volatile Organic Compounds in the United States from 1900 to 1985,” EPA-600/7-88-008a, U.S. 
Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC. May 1988. 

9. “National Air Pollutant Emission Trends Procedures Document, 1900-1996,” EPA-454/R-98-008, U.S. Environmental 
Protection Agency. May 1998. 

10. “National Air Pollutant Emissions Trends, 1900-1994,” EPA-454/R-95-011, Office of Air Quality Planning and 
Standards, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC. October 1995. 

11. Code of Federal Regulations , Title 40, Volume 2, Parts 50 and 51 (40CFR51.100), pages 131-136, U.S. Government 
Printing Office. Revised July 1, 1999. 


a. The great majority of all emission data necessarily are estimates. Exhaustive, on-site quantification, source by source, is a practical, and an 
economic, impossibility. 

b. Lead emissions are measured in short tons. Short tons can be converted to metric tons by dividing the emissions by a factor of 1.1023. 

c. The term nitrogen oxides (NO x ) encompasses emissions of both nitrogen dioxide (N0 2 ) and nitric oxide (NO). 


1.0 Introduction ■ 1-5 







National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


Table 1-1. Major Source Categories 


Tier 1 

Tier 1 Tier 2 

Tier 2 

Tier 1 

Tier 1 Tier 2 Tier 2 

CODE* 

NAME CODE 

NAME 

CODE 

NAME CODE NAME 

01 

FUEL COMBUSTION-ELECTRIC UTILITIES 

09 

STORAGE & TRANSPORT 


01 

Coal 


01 Bulk Terminals & Plants 


02 

Oil 


02 Petroleum & Petroleum Product Storage 


03 

Gas 


03 Petroleum & Petroleum Product Transport 


04 

Other External Combustion 


04 Service Stations: Stage 1 


05 

Internal Combustion 


05 Service Stations: Stage II 

02 

FUEL COMBUSTION-INDUSTRIAL 


06 Service Stations: Breathing & Emptying 


01 

Coal 


07 Organic Chemical Storage 


02 

Oil 


08 Organic Chemical Transport 


03 

Gas 


09 Inorganic Chemical Storage 


04 

Other External Combustion 


10 Inorganic Chemical Transport 


05 

Internal Combustion 


11 Bulk Materials Storage 

03 

FUEL COMBUSTION-OTHER 


12 Bulk Materials Transport 


01 

Commercial / Institutional Coal 

10 

WASTE DISPOSAL & RECYCLING 


02 

Commercial / Institutional Oil 


01 Incineration 


03 

Commercial / Institutional Gas 


02 Open Burning 


04 

Misc. Fuel Combustion (except residential) 


03 Publicly Owned Treatment Works 


05 

Residential Wood 


04 Industrial Waste Water 


06 

Residential Other 


05 Treatment Storage and Disposal Facility 

04 

CHEMICAL & ALLIED PRODUCT MFG. 


06 Landfills 


01 

Organic Chemical Mfg. 


07 Other 


02 

Inorganic Chemical Mfg. 

11 

ON-ROAD VEHICLES 


03 

Polymer & Resin Mfg. 


01 Light-Duty Gasoline Vehicles & Motorcycles 


04 

Agricultural Chemical Mfg. 


02 Light-Duty Gasoline Trucks 


05 

Paint, Varnish, Lacquer, Enamel Mfg. 


03 Heavy-Duty Gasoline Vehicles 


06 

Pharmaceutical Mfg. 


04 Diesels 


07 

Other Chemical Mfg. 

12 

NON-ROAD ENGINES AND VESSELS 

05 

METALS PROCESSING 


01 Non-road Gasoline Engines 


01 

Nonferrous 


02 Non-road Diesel Engines 


02 

Ferrous 


03 Aircraft 


03 

Metals Processing (not elsewhere classified 


04 Marine Vessels 



[NEC]) 


05 Railroads 

06 

PETROLEUM & RELATED INDUSTRIES 

13 

NATURAL SOURCES 


01 

Oil & Gas Production 


01 Biogenic 


02 

Petroleum Refineries & Related Industries 


02 Geogenic (wind erosion) 


03 

Asphalt Manufacturing 


03 Miscellaneous (lightning/freshwater/saltwater) 

07 

OTHER INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES 

14 

MISCELLANEOUS 


01 

Agriculture, Food, & Kindred Products 


01 Agriculture & Forestry 


02 

Textiles, Leather, & Apparel Products 


02 Other Combustion (wildfires) 


03 

Wood, Pulp & Paper, & Publishing Products 


03 Catastrophic / Accidental Releases 


04 

Rubber & Miscellaneous Plastic Products 


04 Repair Shops 


05 

Mineral Products 


05 Health Services 


06 

Machinery Products 


06 Cooling Towers 


07 

Electronic Equipment 


07 Fugitive Dust 


08 

Transportation Equipment 




09 

Construction 




10 

Miscellaneous Industrial Processes 



08 

SOLVENT UTILIZATION 




01 

Degreasing 




02 

Graphic Arts 




03 

Dry Cleaning 




04 

Surface Coating 




05 

Other Industrial 




06 

Nonindustrial 




07 

Solvent Utilization (NEC) 



Note(s): 

* Code numbers are presented for The Representative Emissions National Data System (TRENDS) user. 

The Source Classification Code (SCC) definitions and assignment to Tier category are available on the Technology Transfer 
Network’s (919-541-5742) Emission Inventories/Emission Factors Information (CHIEF) Technical Information Area, or on the 


Internet (www.epa.gov/ttn/chief). 




1-6 ■ 1.0 Introduction 







Chapter 2.0 1998 Emissions 


2.1 WHAT EMISSIONS DATA ARE 
PRESENTED IN THIS CHAPTER? 

This chapter describes the carbon monoxide (CO), 
nitrogen oxides (NO x ), volatile organic compound (VOC), 
sulfur dioxide (S0 2 ), particulate matter less than 10 microns 
(PM 10 ), particulate matter less than 2.5 microns (PM 25 ), lead 
(Pb), and ammonia (NH 3 ) emission estimates for 1998. Any 
notable trends from 1996 levels are discussed. 

2.2 HOW HAVE EMISSION ESTIMATES 
CHANGED FROM 1996 TO 1998 AND 
WHY? 

Tables A-l through A-7 provide detailed emission 
summaries for all pollutants at 5-year intervals from 1970 
through 1985 and yearly for the period 1988 through 1998. 
Exact percentage changes from year to year for specific source 
categories can be calculated from those tables. In particular 
the tables show that between 1996 and 1998, overall emissions 
levels for CO and VOC decreased, NO x remained essentially 
level, while emissions for S0 2 , PM 10 , and PM 25 , and Pb 
increased. Specifically, 

...for utilities 

• S0 2 emissions from point sources increased 
primarily due to coal-fired and oil-fired electric 
utilities. Increased burning of bituminous and 
anthracite coal by utilities created an increase of 
approximately 0.5 million tons/year of SOj. 1 

...for on-road vehicles 

• Reductions due to fleet turnover (implementation of 
Tier I standards), 2 reformulated gasoline require¬ 
ments, oxygenated fuel, and fuels with lower Reid 
vapor pressure resulted in the decrease in on-road 
CO, NO x , VOC, PM 10 , and PM 2 5 emissions despite 
the higher vehicle miles traveled (VMT) in 1998. 

• Higher VMT caused an increase in S0 2 and NH 3 
on-road emissions. 


• Changes to 1990-1998 NO x emissions from heavy- 
duty diesel vehicles (HDDV) due to adjustments in 
emissions due to the diesel defeat device (see section 
5.7.4). 

...for non-road vehicles 

• 1998 emissions decreased slightly for CO, NO x , and 
VOC, remained steady for Pb, and increased slightly 
for NO x , S0 2 , PM 10 , and PM 25 due to variations in 
fuel consumption by non-road engines 3 (gasoline and 
diesel) and vehicles (airplanes, locomotives, and 
marine vessels). 

...for miscellaneous sources 

• 1998 miscellaneous emissions decreased from 1996 
levels for all pollutants except PM l0 , PM 2 5 , and NH 3 . 
Increases in particulate emissions were primarily the 
result of increased VMT on paved and unpaved 
roads, as well as growth in the construction sector 
due to the strong economy. Increases in NH 3 were 
primarily an inventory artifact resulting from 
improved activity data related to agricultural 
livestock operations. 4 

2.2.1 What Sources Are the Main 

Contributors to 1998 CO Emissions? 

Figure 2-1 is a pie chart showing 1998 CO emissions by 

source category. As the figure shows: 

• On-road vehicles are major contributors to CO 
emissions, representing 57 percent of total national 
CO emissions. Of this 57 percent, just over half 
comes from light-duty gasoline vehicles (LDGVs 
[primarily cars]) and motorcycles. 

• Non-road vehicles and engines contribute slightly 
more than 20 percent of total CO emissions. These 
emissions come primarily from gasoline 
consumption by lawn and garden, industrial, and 
recreational marine engines. 


2.0 1998 Emissions ■ 2-1 










National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


• Solvent utilization, storage and transport, and electric 
utility fuel combustion (three Tier 1 source 
categories) contribute slightly more than 0.5 percent 
to total national CO emissions. These source 
categories are combined with petroleum and related 
industries, industrial fuel combustion, other industrial 
processes, waste disposal and recycling, and 
chemical and allied product manufacturing, to create 
the “all other” grouping in Figure 2-1. 

Table 2-1 presents the point and area split of the Tier 1 
source categories. Area source emissions, including 
transportation sources and some minor point sources, comprise 
over 95 percent of total 1998 CO emissions. 

2.2.2 What Sources Are the Main 
Contributors to 1998 NO x Emissions? 

Figure 2-2 is a pie chart showing 1998 NO x emissions by 
source category. As the figure shows: 

• On-road vehicles account for 31 percent of total 
national NO x emissions. LDGVs are a major 
contributor (approximately 37 percent) to the 1998 
on-road vehicle NO x emissions. 

• Electric utilities represent 25 percent of total national 
NO x emissions in 1998. Coal combustion represents 
almost 90 percent of these emissions, with two-thirds 
of the coal combustion emissions coming from 
bituminous coal combustion. 

• Solvent utilization, storage and transport, waste 
disposal and recycling, and metals processing (four 
Tier 1 source categories) constitute less that 1 percent 
of total national NO x emissions. The United States 
(U.S.) Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) 
includes these sources in the “all other” grouping in 
Figure 2-2, along with chemical and allied product 
manufacturing, other industrial processes, 
miscellaneous, and petroleum and related industries. 

Table 2-1 presents the point and area split of the Tier 1 
source categories. Area source emissions, including 
transportation sources, comprise 62 percent of total 1998 NO x 
emissions. On-road and non-road sources contribute 53 
percent of the total NO x . 

2.2.3 What Sources Are the Main 
Contributors to 1998 VOC Emissions? 

Figure 2-3 shows 1998 VOC emissions by source 
category. As the figure indicates: 


• Solvent utilization represents 30 percent of the total 
1998 VOC emissions. Surface coating constitutes 
just over 40 percent of the solvent utilization 
emissions. The 26 specific subcategories of surface 
coating estimated by EPA are presented in Table 
A-3. Table A-3 also shows the effects of control 
programs on these sources. For example, co-control 
of VOCs related to maximum achievable control 
technology (MACT) controls can be seen for 1998 
emissions from industrial adhesive surface coating 
operations. A MACT standard for that source 
category went into effect in 1998, reducing emissions 
by over 50 percent relative to 1996 and 1997 values. 5 

• On-road vehicles represented 29 percent of total 
national VOC emissions. LDGVs account for just 
over half of total national on-road vehicle VOC 
emissions. 

• Electric utility fuel combustion and metals 
processing (two Tier 1 source categories) contribute 
slightly less than 3 percent of total national VOC 
emissions. EPA combines electric utility fuel 
combustion, metals processing, chemical and allied 
product manufacturing, petroleum and related 
industries, miscellaneous, other industrial processes 
and fuel combustion (industrial, other) into an “all 
other” grouping of Figure 2-3. This “all other” 
grouping contributed 21 percent to the total 1998 
VOC emissions. 

Table 2-1 presents the point and area source split of the 
Tier 1 source categories. Area source emissions, including 
transportation sources, make up 86 percent of total 1998 VOC 
emissions. 

2.2.4 What Sources Are the Main 

Contributors to 1998 SO, Emissions? 

Figure 2-4 is a pie chart showing 1998 S0 2 emissions by 
source category. As the figure shows: 

• Electric utilities contribute the majority of SO, 
emissions, representing over two-thirds (68 percent) 
of total national S0 2 emissions in 1998. Well over 
90 percent of these emissions come from coal 
combustion. Bituminous coal combustion accounts 
three-fourths of the electric utility coal combustion 
emissions. 

• Industrial coal combustion produced 15 percent of 
the 1998 SO, emissions. 

• Solvent utilization, storage and transport, waste 
disposal and recycling, on-road sources, and 


2-2 ■ 2.0 1998 Emissions 




National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


miscellaneous (five Tier 1 source categories) account 
for 2 percent of total national SO, emissions. These 
sources, along with non-road sources, petroleum and 
related industries, and other industrial processes, 
comprise EPA’s “all other” grouping. 

Table 2-1 presents the point and area split of the Tier 1 
source categories. Area source emissions, including 
transportation sources, make up 14 percent of total 1998 SO, 
emissions, while point sources make up the remainder. 

2.2.5 What Sources Are the Main 

Contributors to 1998 Particulate Matter 
(PM 10 and PM 2 5 ) Emissions? 

Figures 2-5 and 2-6 are pie charts showing 1998 PM 10 
and PM, 5 emissions by source category. They depict the 
nonfugitive dust sources of PM 10 and PM, 5 . As the figures 
show: 

• Fuel combustion processes (utilities, industrial, 
commercial, and institutional boilers, and area source 
combustion) contribute the most to the nonfugitive 
dust portions of PM. Mobile sources, both on-road 
and non-road, are the next largest category of 
emitters. Industrial processes collectively comprise 
only about 10 percent of the nonfugitive dust sources, 
but they could have a significant effect on air quality 
in their vicinity. 

• Wildfire PM 10 and PM 25 emissions for 1998 
decreased significantly relative to 1996 and 1997 
levels due to a dramatic reduction in the number of 
acres burned. Managed burning and wildfires 
comprise most of the area source combustion 
contributions in Figures 2-5 and 2-6. 

Although the NET inventory shows that fugitive dust 
contributes a large percentage to the total PM emissions, a 
report by the Desert Research Institute found that about 75% 
of these emissions are within 2 m of the ground at the point 
they are measured. Thus, most of them are likely to be 
removed or deposited within a few km of their release, 
depending on atmospheric turbulence, temperature, soil 
moisture, availability of horizontal and vertical surfaces tor 
impaction and initial suspension energy. This is consistent 
with the generally small amount of crustal materials found on 
speciated ambient samples. 6 

For a complete understanding of PM, 5 emissions, one 
should also consider the emissions of SO,, NO x , and NH V 
These gases react in the atmosphere to form ammonium sulfate 
and ammonium nitrate fine particles; also, some organic 
particles are formed from VOCs. These “secondary” tine 
particles (in contrast to the directly emitted particles from 
combustion and fugitive dust) can comprise as much as half 


the PM 2 5 measured in the U.S. 7 Source apportionment studies 
exist to help elucidate the role of primary PM (reflected in the 
NET) and secondary PM. 

Table 2-1 presents the point and area split of the Tier 1 
source categories. Area source emissions, including 
transportation sources, make up 96 percent of total 1998 PM 10 
emissions. Methods and related data sources for several area 
source categories are currently being reviewed. These include 
unpaved roads, open burning, and construction. 

Note that some emission estimates have not been updated. 
For example, wind erosion particulate emissions have been 
maintained at a constant value since 1996. Also, annual 
estimates of wind erosion emissions are difficult to interpret, 
owing to the extremely short duration of most wind events. 

2.2.6 What Sources Are the Main 
Contributors to 1998 Pb Emissions? 

Figure 2-7 is a pie chart showing 1998 Pb emissions by 
source category. As the figure shows: 

• Metals processing contributes 53 percent to total 
national Pb emissions. Nonferrous metal processing 
represents 65 percent of the 1998 metals processing 
emissions. Primary and secondary Pb products 
represent 46 and 37 percent, respectively, of the 
nonferrous metals in 1998. 

• On-road emissions account for less than 0.5 percent 
of total national Pb emissions. 

• EPA does not estimate Pb emissions for the 
following 5 Tier 1 source categories because Pb 
emissions from these sources are thought to be 
negligible: solvent utilization, storage and transport, 
petroleum and related industries, natural sources, and 
miscellaneous. Figure 2-7 shows the percentage 
contribution from the remaining 9 Tier 1 categories. 
The “all other” grouping includes chemical and allied 
product manufacturing, other industrial processes, 
and fuel combustion (electric utility and industrial). 

2.2.7 What Sources Are the Main 
Contributors to 1998 NH 3 Emissions? 

Figure 2-8 is a pie chart showing 1998 NH 3 emissions by 
source category. As the figure shows, livestock agriculture 
contributes the largest amount of NH 3 emissions. Livestock 
agriculture and fertilizer application combined comprise 86 
percent of total national NH 3 emissions in 1998. Currently, 
the USDA and EPA are working to refine the NH 3 inventory 
for all source categories, including some natural and biogenic 
categories that are not in the current inventory. As mentioned 
above (section 2.2.5), NH 3 is involved in the formation of 


2.0 1998 Emissions ■ 2-3 










National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


ammonium sulfate and ammonium nitrate particles. The NH 3 
inventory is important to perform modeling simulations to 
understand the formation of these particles in the atmosphere 
using transport and transformation models. 

2.3 HOW DOES EPA ESTIMATE AND 
REPORT SPATIAL EMISSIONS? 

EPA estimates emissions at the county level and then 
sums them to the state level for all criteria pollutants except Pb 
and for all source categories except fugitive dust sources and 
wildfires (whose emissions are estimated at the State level and 
are allocated to the county level using spatial surrogates). 
Figures 2-9 through 2-15 present the broad geographic 
distributions of 1998 emissions based on each county’s 
tonnage per square mile. Specifically, 

• Figure 2-9 shows that (on an emission density basis) 
the eastern third of the United States and the west 
coast emit more CO than the western two-thirds of 
the continental United States. 

• Figures 2-10 through 2-12 show that the eastern half 
of the United States and the west coast emit more 
NO x , VOC, and S0 2 than the western half of the 
continental United States. 

• Fugitive dust emissions, which predominate in rural 
and agricultural areas, comprise the major component 
of PM 10 and PM, 5 emissions. NH 3 emissions follow 
a similar pattern, although they are primarily 
associated with agricultural and fertilizer sources 
rather than fugitive dust. 


2.3.1 How Does My State Compare in Rank 
to Other States? 

To understand how a particular State ranks relative to 
magnitude of emissions, refer to Table 2-2, which presents the 
total state-level emissions and state rankings for all pollutants. 

• EPA summed the county-level emissions to produce 
the state-level emissions. 

• The estimates for Alaska and Hawaii include only 
on-road vehicle, point source, residential wood 
combustion, and wildfire emissions. PM I0 and PM, 5 
estimates also include some fugitive dust estimates 
for Alaska and Hawaii. (A base year inventory 
similar to National Acid Precipitation Assessment 
Program (NAPAP) was not available for these 
states.) 

2.4 WHAT ARE THE LARGEST POINT 
SOURCES IN THE INVENTORY? 

Refer to Table 2-1 to understand which categories contain 
the largest amount of point sources. Historically, steel mills, 
smelters, utility plants, and petroleum refining produce the 
largest point source emissions. We usually provide point 
source top 50 lists in this report; however, this year new 
periodic emission inventory (PEI) point source data was 
received and was still being quality assured at press time. 
Once the State data is deemed accurate, EPA intends to post 
top 50 lists by pollutant on EPA’s Emission Factor and 
Inventory Group’s (EFIG) web site (expected later in 2000). 
The internet address for the EFIG is: 
http://vvww.epa.gov/ttn/chief/efig. 


2-4 ■ 2.0 1998 Emissions 




National Air Pollutant Emission Trends , 1900 - 1998 


2.5 REFERENCES 

1. http://www.epa.gov/acidrain/cems/cemlng.html 

2. Federal Register as 56 FR 25724, June 5, 1991. 

3. http://www.epa.gov/otaq/nonrdmdl.htm 

4. 1997 Census of Agriculture: Geographic Area Series, Volume 1, 1 A, IB, 1C [machine-readable data file] / United States 
Dept, of Agriculture, National Agricultural Statistics Service. Washington, D.C.: The Service [producer and distributor], 
1999. 

5. Listing of MACT rules may be found at: http://www.epa.gov/ttn/uatw/eparules.html 

6. Watson, John G. and Judith C. Chow, “Reconciling Urban Fugitive Dust Emissions Inventory and Ambient Source 
Contribution Estimates: Summary of Current Knowledge and Recent Research” DRAFT, Desert Research Institute 
Document No. 61104dD2, Reno, NV, September 3, 1999. (This document may be found at: 

http//www.epa.gov/ttn/chief/ap42pdf/fugitive.pdf) 

7. “National Air Quality and Emission Trends Report, 1997”, EPA-454/R-98-016, Office of Air Quality Planning and 
Standards, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC. Pages 42-45, December 1998. 

8. “National Air Pollutant Emissions Trends, 1900-1996,” EPA-454/R-97-011, Office of Air Quality Planning and 
Standards, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC. December 1997. 

9. Bollman, A.D. and G. Stella, “Status and Future Plans for the Economic Growth Analysis System (EGAS).” Proceedings 
of the Air & Waste Management Association Emission Inventory Specialty Conference, New Orleans, LA, December 8- 
10, 1998. 


2.0 1998 Emissions ■ 2-5 









National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 



2-6 ■ 2.0 1998 Emissions 


















National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 




2.0 1998 Emissions 


2-7 



















National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


Table 2-2. Anthropogenic 1998 State-level Emissions and Rank for 
CO, NO x , VOC, S0 2 , PM 10 , PM 25 , and NH 3 
(thousand short tons) 


State 

Rank 

O 

O 

Rank 

NO x 

Rank 

VOC! 

Rank 

S0 2 ! 

Rank 

PM, 0 

Rank 

PM 2 , 

Rank 

nh 3 

Alabama 

12 

2,3611 

15 

619 

16 

419! 

9 

764! 

19 

619 

15 

184 

24 

88 

Alaska 

13 

2,249! 

44 

99 

14 

457! 

50 

12! 

39 

274 

19 

155 

51 

1 

Arizona 

27 

1,370: 

23 

450 

26 

281! 

26 

225! 

36 

336 

24 

145 

36 

35 

Arkansas 

31 

1,1471 

35 

267 

32 

223! 

36 

125! 

23 

529 

25 

132 

10 

161 

California 

1 

8,072! 

2 

1,456 

2 

1,215} 

28 

1821 

3 

1,973 

3 

535 

7 

211 

Colorado 

29 

1,200l 

25 

400 

27 

274! 

35 

137! 

24 

518 

29 

126 

15 

111 

Connecticut 

37 

793 i 

41 

153 

35 

156! 

41 

66! 

45 

119 

45 

30 

45 

8 

DC 

51 

iooi 

51 

23 

51 

22! 

51 

11! 

51 

6 

51 

2 

50 

2 

Delaware 

50 

216: 

47 

77 

48 

51! 

37 

96! 

48 

39 

48 

14 

43 

12 

Florida 

3 

5,203: 

5 

1,059 

3 

891! 

6 

1,008! 

11 

822 

7 

260 

22 

94 

Georgia 

4 

3,998! 

12 

730 

9 

576! 

13 

660! 

7 

1,103 

4 

320 

17 

106 

Hawaii 

47 

3211 

48 

59 

47 

53! 

47 

35! 

49 

35 

49 

11 

47 

7 

Idaho 

34 

956! 

43 

116 

39 

115! 

46 

39! 

14 

678 

17 

161 

27 

78 

Illinois 

9 

2,890! 

4 

1,076 

6 

748! 

4 

1,153! 

9 

1,028 

6 

261 

11 

148 

Indiana 

11 

2,526! 

7 

848 

12 

518! 

3 

1,164! 

17 

641 

20 

154 

18 

104 

Iowa 

33 

1,0451 

30 

343 

31 

239! 

23 

283! 

20 

602 

27 

130 

2 

305 

Kansas 

28 

1,230! 

20 

479 

30 

257! 

30 

163! 

4 

1,570 

5 

299 

4 

232 

Kentucky 

26 

1,3891 

14 

682 

23 

330! 

10 

753! 

35 

345 

35 

103 

21 

95 

Louisiana 

14 

2,184: 

9 

825 

15 

425! 

16 

405! 

27 

441 

23 

149 

13 

130 

Maine 

42 

488! 

45 

94 

40 

109! 

44 

53! 

42 

158 

36 

102 

46 

8 

Maryland 

32 

1,1071 

29 

344 

33 

183! 

19 

339! 

41 

227 

42 

57 

38 

28 

Massachusetts 

30 

1,1 88! 

31 

304 

29 

264! 

24 

264! 

38 

290 

40 

72 

42 

14 

Michigan 

7 

3,309! 

6 

880 

4 

765! 

14 

628! 

21 

569 

21 

153 

29 

70 

Minnesota 

22 

1,552: 

21 

476 

19 

381! 

31 

162! 

10 

1,011 

10 

222 

8 

198 

Mississippi 

25 

1,414! 

28 

353 

24 

304! 

21 

305! 

26 

458 

26 

130 

23 

91 

Missouri 

19 

1,816! 

16 

546 

20 

360! 

15 

482! 

5 

1,286 

8 

252 

6 

221 

Montana 

39 

703! 

39 

176 

42 

105! 

42 

60! 

6 

1,137 

12 

216 

19 

96 

Nebraska 

40 

681! 

36 

239 

36 

154! 

38 

94! 

18 

632 

30 

125 

3 

241 

Nevada 

41 

520! 

40 

157 

43 

98! 

40 

66! 

44 

143 

44 

39 

40 

17 

New Hampshire 

45 

355! 

46 

82 

45 

74! 

34 

148! 

47 

54 

47 

17 

48 

3 

New Jersey 

24 

1,454! 

22 

466 

17 

408! 

25 

257! 

37 

313 

37 

96 

41 

15 

New Mexico 

36 

855! 

32 

279 

38 

140! 

27 

199! 

1 

4,987 

1 

781 

34 

49 

New York 

6 

3,337} 

13 

723 

5 

753! 

12 

688! 

12 

767 

11 

222 

30 

69 

North Carolina 

10 

2,773! 

11 

745 

8 

605! 

11 

729! 

25 

501 

16 

172 

9 

183 

North Dakota 

43 

380! 

37 

235 

41 

105! 

20 

327! 

29 

430 

38 

92 

26 

79 

Ohio 

5 

3,934! 

3 

1,198 

7 

706! 

1 

1,921} 

16 

658 

13 

195 

16 

111 

Oklahoma 

23 

1,518! 

24 

440 

25 

295! 

32 

157! 

8 

1,033 

14 

193 

5 

222 

Oregon 

18 

1,988! 

33 

271 

28 

272! 

43 

58! 

13 

686 

9 

224 

31 

65 

Pennsylvania 

8 

2,909! 

8 

840 

10 

575! 

2 

1,221} 

22 

547 

18 

156 

20 

96 

Rhode Island 

49 

221! 

50 

35 

49 

49! 

49 

12! 

50 

25 

50 

8 

49 

2 

South Carolina 

20 

1,638! 

26 

367 

22 

334! 

22 

290! 

30 

410 

34 

112 

37 

33 

South Dakota 

46 

333! 

42 

119 

44 

78! 

45 

53! 

34 

349 

39 

73 

12 

132 

Tennessee 

16 

2,037! 

10 

761 

11 

528! 

7 

789! 

33 

375 

28 

130 

25 

83 

Texas 

2 

5,644! 

1 

2,140 

1 

1,388! 

5 

1,096! 

2 

3,655 

2 

733 

1 

511 

Utah 

35 

942! 

38 

233 

34 

161! 

39 

79! 

40 

238 

41 

69 

35 

36 

Vermont 

48 

240! 

49 

46 

50 

44! 

48 

16! 

46 

75 

46 

18 

44 

10 

Virginia 

15 

2,149! 

17 

532 

13 

471! 

18 

373! 

31 

409 

32 

118 

28 

73 

Washington 

17 

2,035! 

27 

364 

21 

347! 

33 

155! 

28 

430 

22 

149 

32 

59 

West Virginia 

38 

721 ! 

18 

500 

37 

141 ! 

8 

787! 

43 

152 

43 

50 

39 

19 

Wisconsin 

21 

1,600! 

19 

480 

18 

400! 

17 

378! 

32 

391 

33 

112 

14 

124 

Wyoming 

44 

361! 

34 

270 

46 

68! 

29 

179! 

15 

663 

31 

122 

33 

53 

National 


89,454! 


24,454 


17,917! 


19,647! 


34,741 

8,379 

4,935 


Note(s): The sums of States may not equal National totals due to rounding. 


2-8 ■ 2.0 1998 Emissions 


/ 










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by Principal Source Categories 




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2-10 ■ 1998 Emissions 













































































Figure 2-3. 1998 National VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUND Emissions 

by Principal Source Categories 


National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900-1998 



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1998 Emissions ■ 2-11 








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2-14 ■ 1998 Emissions 





























































































Figure 2-7. 1998 National LEAD Emissions 
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National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900-1998 


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2-16 ■ 1998 Emissions 


































Figure 2-9. Density Map of 1998 CARBON MONOXIDE 

Emissions by County 


National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1990-1998 



2.0 1998 Emissions ■ 2-17 































Figure 2-10. Density Map of 1998 NITROGEN OXIDE 

Emissions by County 


National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1990-1998 



□ □□□□ 


2-18 ■ 2.0 1998 Emissions 



















Figure 2-11. Density Map of 1998 VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUND 

Emissions by County 


National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1990-1998 



2.0 1998 Emissions ■ 2-19 



































Figure 2-12. Density Map of 1998 SULFUR DIOXIDE 

Emissions by County 


National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1990-1998 



2-20 ■ 2.0 1998 Emissions 






















Figure 2-13. Density Map of 1998 PARTICULATE MATTER (PM 10 ) 

Emissions by County 


National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1990-1998 



2.0 1998 Emissions ■ 2-21 




















Figure 2-14. Density Map of 1998 PARTICULATE MATTER (PM 2 .s) 

Emissions by County 


National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1990-1998 



2-22 ■ 2.0 1998 Emissions 


























Figure 2-15. Density Map of 1998 AMMONIA Emissions by County 


National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1990-1998 



2.0 1998 Emissions "2-23 





















[This page intentionally left blank.] 


National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


Chapter 3.0 National Emissions Trends, 

1900 to 1998 


3.1 WHAT DATA ARE PRESENTED IN 
THIS CHAPTER? 

This chapter presents historical trends in air pollutant 
emissions [carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NO x ), 
volatile organic compounds (VOCs), sulfur dioxide (S0 2 ), 
particulate matter less than 10 microns (PM 10 ), particulate 
matter less than 2.5 microns (PM 2 5 ), and lead (Pb). Although 
not a criteria pollutant, emission estimates for ammonia (NH 3 )] 
for the period 1900 through 1998 (where available). The 
source categories discussed in this chapter include: fuel 
combustion, industrial processes (chemical and allied 
products, metals processing, petroleum and related industries, 
other industrial processes, solvent utilization, storage and 
transport, and waste disposal and recycling), on-road vehicles, 
non-road engines and vehicles, and miscellaneous. This 
chapter also describes the effects that national economic 
activity and regulatory efforts have had on air pollutant 
emissions trends. 

In this chapter, values representing changing emissions or 
the percentage change in emissions over various time periods 
are presented. It is important for the reader to realize that all 
values are estimates only and possess a large degree of 
uncertainty. Uncertainty analyses are ongoing at the United 
States (U.S.) Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and 
will be reported in the FY2001 report. 

3.2 WHEN DID AIR POLLUTION 
CONTROL EFFORTS BEGIN AND HOW 
HAVE THEY EVOLVED? 

In 1881, the cities of Chicago and Cincinnati, in an effort 
to control smoke and soot primarily from furnaces and 
locomotives, passed the first air pollution statutes in the 
United States. By the early 1900s, county governments began 
to pass their own pollution control laws. In 1952, Oregon 
became the first state to legislatively control air pollution, and 
other states soon followed, enacting air pollution statutes 
generally aimed at controlling smoke and particulates. 


The Federal Government became involved in air pollution 
control in 1955 with the passage of the Air Pollution Control 
Act. This law limited Federal involvement in air pollution 
control to providing funding assistance for the States' air 
pollution research and training efforts. The shift by the 
Federal Government toward greater involvement in air 
pollution control began with the passage of the original Clean 
Air Act (CA A) in 1963. This act provided permanent Federal 
support for air pollution research, continued and increased 
Federal assistance to states for developing their air pollution 
control agencies, and a mechanism through which the Federal 
Government could assist states with cross-boundary air 
pollution problems. In^ 965, Congress amended the CAA for 
the first time, directing the Secretary of Health, Education, and 
Welfare to set the first Federal emissions standards for motor 
vehicles. 

In 1967, Congress passed the Air Quality Act, which 
required that states establish air quality control regions and 
that Health, Education, and Welfare, through the National Air 
Pollution Control Administration, conduct research on the 
effects of air pollution, operate a monitoring network, and 
promulgate criteria to serve as the basis for setting emission 
standards. States would then use the HEW information to set 
air quality standards. In addition, the Air Quality Act directed 
HEW to identify control technologies for states to use to attain 
the air quality standards that each state was to have 
established. 

Several problems undermined this early period of federal 
air pollution control. The HEW belatedly issued guidance 
documents detailing the adverse health effects associated with 
common air pollutants; where guidance documents had been 
prepared, states either failed to set air quality standards or 
failed to develop implementation plans in a timely manner. In 
addition, the initial exhaust emission standards set by HEW in 
1968 resulted only in relatively small reductions in automobile 
pollutants. 

1970 marked the beginning of several major changes to 
federal air pollution control efforts. First, the Federal 
Government created a new federal agency, the EPA, on 
December 2, 1970, and charged it with the responsibility of 
setting National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS). 
Second, EPA was given the authority to develop national 


3.0 Summary of National Emissions Trends ■ 3-1 





National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


emissions standards for cars, trucks, and buses. Finally, 
Congress gave EPA the power to set emissions performance 
standards [known as new source performance standards 
(NSPS)] for all new sources of the common air pollutants. 
Under the CAA, the only major responsibility that states 
retained was that of determining how to control existing 
sources. 

In response to its mandate, the EPA promulgated primary 
and secondary NAAQS in 1971 for photochemical oxidants, 
S0 2 , total suspended particulate (TSP), CO, and hydrocarbons. 
To comply with each of the NAAQS by a 1975 deadline, states 
had to develop and implement State Implementation Plans 
(SIPs) that would demonstrate how existing sources would be 
controlled. In 1977, Congress made additional modifications 
to the CAA, laying the groundwork for more significant 
changes to occur with the passage of the CAA Amendments 
(CAAA). 

The photochemical oxidants standard formulated by EPA 
in 1971 set an hourly average level that was not to be exceeded 
more than once per year. In 1979, EPA changed the chemical 
designation of the NAAQS from photochemical oxidants to 
ozone (0 3 ). In 1979, EPA revised the 0 3 standard from 0.08 
parts per million (ppm) of 0 3 to 0.12 ppm of 0 3 measured over 
a 1-hour period, not to be exceeded more than three times in a 
3-year period. In July 1997, EPA once again revised the 0 3 
standard, returning it to 0.08 ppm of 0 3 but measured over an 
8-hour period, where a formal exceedance was triggered by the 
fourth highest concentration over a 3-year period. The District 
of Columbia Circuit Court remanded this revision in May of 
1999, placing the status of the new 8-hour 0 3 NAAQS in 
question. 

The regulatory discussion in this report is not 
comprehensive; instead, it emphasizes some of the regulatory 
efforts that have targeted the major source categories for each 
air pollutant. An example is the national Acid Rain Program 
authorized by Title IV of the 1990 CAAA. The initial phase 
of its innovative market-based S0 2 reduction program began 
in 1995 and, during the first year of compliance, utilities cut 
SO, emissions from their Phase I (Table A) units by 
approximately 40 percent. Phase I of the Acid Rain NO x 
reduction program, a more conventional rate-based control 
program for coal-fired utility boilers, began in 1996 and 
contributed to the general decline in NO x emissions in the late 
1990s. 

However, the lack of detail available for all of the data 
precludes the possibility of analyzing some of the stationary 
source control measures [for example, state-specific 
regulations such as reasonably available control technology 
(RACT) provisions]. As a point of reference. Figure 3-1 
presents the trends in gross domestic product (GDP), 
population, vehicle miles traveled (VMT), and total fuel 
consumption (that is, total fuel consumed by industrial, 
residential, commercial, and transportation sectors) from 1970 
to 1998. 


In the fall of 1998, EPA issued a new regulation requiring 
22 states and the District of Columbia to submit SIPs to 
diminish the regional transport of ground-level 0 3 through 
reductions in NO x . This regulation is commonly known as the 
NO x SIP call. By reducing NO x emissions, this rule aims to 
reduce the transport of ground-level ozone across state 
boundaries in the eastern half of the United States. The rule 
requires NO x emission reduction measures to be in place by 
May 1, 2003. While EPA does not mandate which sources 
must reduce pollution, EPA expects utilities and large 
non-utility point sources to be the most likely sources of NO x 
emissions reductions. The rule also establishes a NO x Budget 
Trading Program which should enable states to achieve over 
90 percent of the required emissions reductions in a highly 
cost-effective manner. EPA projects that full implementation 
of the NO x SIP call would reduce NO x emissions in the eastern 
United States by 25 percent, or approximately 1.142 million 
tons, beginning in the year 2003. Timing is uncertain due to 
litigation. 

3.3 WHAT ARE THE GENERAL 

HISTORICAL EMISSIONS TRENDS? 

Tables 3-1 through 3-8 present emissions trends for the 
period 1940 through 1998 for CO, NO x , VOC, S0 2 , PM 10 , 
PM 25 , Pb, and NH 3 . Appendix Tables A-l through A-7 
present detailed emissions for the years 1970 through 1998, 
“where available.” CO, VOC, S0 2 , and Pb emissions peaked 
in or around 1970, with a general downward trend during the 
1970 to 1998 time frame. PM 10 emission levels peaked around 
1950, steadily declined until the mid-1980s, and since then 
have remained relatively stable. NO x emissions steadily 
increased through the mid-1970s to 24.4 million tons in 1980, 
declined slightly during the early 1980s, and then climbed 
again, exceeding 25 million tons in 1994. Total NO x 
emissions have since declined slightly. From 1990 to 1998, 
NH 3 emissions rose by 14 percent, while PM 25 emissions 
remained relatively stable. Figures 3-2 through 3-9 depict 
emission estimates for each source category from 1940 to 
1998 (where available). 

3.3.1 How Have CO Emissions Changed? 

Table 3.1 shows historical trends in CO emissions by 
principal source categories. Total CO emissions peaked in 
1970 and decreased rather steadily thereafter. A significant 
decrease in CO emissions occurred between 1973 and 1975 as 
a result of disruptions in world oil markets and a subsequent 
recession in the United States. (NO x and VOC emissions 
trends also showed similar short-term decreases from 1973 to 
1975 for the same reasons.) The fluctuations of CO emissions 
in the late 1980s is due to the variation in wildfire activity 
from year-to-year. 


3-2 ■ 3.0 Summary of National Emissions Trends 





National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


3.3.2 How Have NO x and VOC Emissions 
Changed? 

This report often considers NO x and VOC together 
because they comprise the principal components in the 
chemical and physical atmospheric reactions that form 0 3 and 
other photochemical oxidants. Although an ambient air 
quality standard does not exist for VOC, VOC emissions are 
an important category from the standpoint of modeling 0 3 
formation. 

With regard to NO x , total national emissions increased 
233 percent between 1940 and 1998. Changes in emissions 
over this time period are shown in Table 3-2. From 1970 to 
1997, NO x emissions increased by approximately 19 percent, 
followed by a slight decline in 1998. 

Table 3-3 presents the trend in VOC emissions from 1940 
through 1998. Total national VOC emissions rose 
significantly from 1940 to 1970, but then declined almost as 
significantly from 1970 to 1998. In fact, 1998 levels exceed 
1940 VOC emission levels by less than one million tons. 

When calculating VOC emissions, EPA includes those 
emissions of VOC species that primarily contribute to the 
formation of 0 3 in total VOC emissions but excludes 
emissions of methane (CH 4 ), a nonreactive compound. EPA 
makes no adjustments to include chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) 
or to exclude ethane and other VOCs with negligible 
photochemical reactivity, and it estimates on-road vehicle 
emissions as nonmethane hydrocarbons. Chapter 6 discusses 
emissions of organic compounds from biogenic sources such 
as trees and other vegetation. According to recent research, 
natural sources emit almost the same level of VOC emissions 
as anthropogenic sources, but the extent to which biogenic 
VOC emissions contribute to oxidant formation has not been 
determined. 

3.3.3 How Have SO, Emissions Changed? 

Table 3-4 presents the trend in SO, emissions between 
1940 and 1998. National SO, emissions rose 56 percent from 
1940 to 1970 and have since declined, primarily because of 
regulatory actions, especially those that targeted utility 
sources. 

3.3.4 How Have PM 10 Emissions Changed? 

Table 3-5 presents the 1940 to 1998 trend in PM 10 
emissions. EPA divides PM 10 sources into two categories: 
fugitive dust sources and nonfugitive dust sources. PM 10 
fugitive dust sources include natural sources (geogenic - wind 
erosion) and some miscellaneous sources. These 
miscellaneous sources include agriculture and forestry fugitive 
dust sources. The PM 10 nonfugitive dust sources include all 
other PM 10 sources. For 1998, EPA estimates that total 
national fugitive dust PM 10 emissions are approximately 8 


times greater than total emissions from nonfugitive dust 
sources. Since 1990, emissions from fugitive dust sources 
have increased slightly, primarily as the result of increases in 
unpaved road and construction emissions. 

3.3.5 How Have PM 25 Emissions Changed? 

This most recent Trends report includes data on PM 25 
emission trends since 1990. EPA originally developed 
emissions estimates for PM 2 5 under the National Particulate 
Inventory (NPI). This study consisted of a 1990 air emissions 
inventory for the United States (excluding Alaska and 
Hawaii), Canada, and Mexico. For the 1998 Trends report, 
EPA uses State particulate data where available to develop 
PM 25 estimates. As can be seen in Table 3-6, overall PM 25 
emissions remain relatively constant from 1990to 1998, while 
emissions from residential wood combustion decline 
significantly and emissions from natural sources fluctuate. 

3.3.6 How Have Pb Emissions Changed? 

Table 3-7 provides data on Pb emissions from 1970 
through 1998. The promulgation of a national ambient air 
quality standard for Pb in October 1978 has been the primary 
force behind the dramatic decrease in Pb emissions from 
220,869 tons in 1970 to 3,973 tons in 1998. 

3.3.7 How Have NH 3 Emissions Changed? 

This Trends report also includes data on NH 3 emission 
trends since 1990. Table 3-8 presents the emissions data for 
NH 3 since 1990. Fuel combustion-industrial, on-road 
vehicles, and miscellaneous sources saw the greatest growth 
in emissions during the 1990s, while chemical and allied 
product manufacturing and petroleum and related industries 
saw the greatest declines in emissions during that same period. 

3.4 HOW HAVE EMISSIONS IN THE 
MAJOR SOURCE CATEGORIES 
CHANGED? 

This section discusses the trends in emissions from a 
source category perspective rather than a pollutant perspective. 
While each pollutant is discussed relative to the source 
category being considered, the main emphasis is on the 
changes that have occurred in that source category. In 
addition, this section occasionally discusses long term trends 
in emissions. As a point of reference. Table 3-13 presents 
total national (but not source category specific) emission 
estimates for each pollutant for each year available from 1900 
to 1998. 


3.0 Summary of National Emissions Trends ■ 3-3 




National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


3.4.1 How Have Emissions in the Stationary 
Source Fuel Combustion Categories 
Changed? 

The three stationary source fuel combustion categories are 
fuel combustion - electric utility, fuel combustion - industrial, 
and fuel combustion - other. Fuel combustion - other includes 
commercial/institutional coal, commercial/institutional oil, 
commercial/institutional gas, miscellaneous fuel combustion 
(except residential), residential wood and residential other. 
Figures 3-2 through 3-9, present trends in CO, NO x , VOC, 
PM, PM, 5 , Pb, and NH 3 emissions from fuel combustion 
sources from as early as 1940 in most cases, to 1998. 

Emissions of SO, from fuel combustion sources peaked 
in 1973, declined sharply in the mid 1990s, but are rising 
again. NO x emissions from fuel combustion sources peaked 
a few years later, in 1977, and remained approximately 
constant at their peak level through the mid 1990s. 
Meanwhile, VOC and PM 10 emissions declined steadily from 
1940 until the early 1970s. Emissions then rose, but declined 
again in the late 1980s. Pb emissions peaked in 1972 and have 
since declined significantly. Although overall CO emissions 
declined steadily from 1940 until 1970, they reversed trend 
after 1970, peaking at 8 million tons in 1985. PM 25 emissions 
have declined overall between 1990 and 1998. While NH 3 
emissions from fuel combustion sources rose slightly since 
1990, fuel combustion contributed less than 2 percent to 
national total NH 3 emissions throughout the 1990s. 

Historically, residential wood contributes the largest 
quantity of fuel combustion CO and VOC emissions. 
Therefore, despite a gradual increase in CO and VOC 
emissions from electric utilities and industrial sources since 
1940, the more substantial decline in emissions from 
residential wood consumption since 1985 accounts for the 
overall decline from the fuel combustion category since 1985. 
CO and VOC emissions from the fuel combustion category 
accounted for 16 and 12 percent of total national CO and VOC 
emissions in 1940 but only 6 and 5 percent in 1998. 

In 1900, emissions from all fuel combustion sources 
represented 68 percent of total national VOC emissions, with 
residential wood combustion accounting for 90 percent of 
those emissions. From 1940 to 1970, residential wood 
consumption declined steadily as a result of the abundant 
supply, low relative prices, and convenience of fossil fuels 
relative to wood for home heating, cooking, and heating water. 
This decline halted in the early 1970s because disruptions in 
crude oil deliveries and related product markets caused prices 
for fossil fuel products to rise. These higher prices led to a 
resurgence in the use of wood for home heating and thus to a 
corresponding increase in emissions from residential wood 
combustion. By 1980, though, prices of fossil fuel products 
once again began to decline. As a result, residential wood 
consumption once again declined, as did the corresponding 
CO and VOC emissions. 


With regard to NO x , electric utilities contribute the largest 
percentage of NO x emissions from the stationary source fuel 
combustion categories. In 1900, electric utilities accounted for 
4 percent of total national 1998 NO x emissions, but by 1998 
they accounted for 25 percent of total national NO x emissions. 
Coal accounted for 88 percent of the electric utility NO x 
emissions in 1998. 

Fuel combustion-industrial contributes approximately 12 
percent of total national 1998 NO x emissions. While 
emissions from this source have generally declined since 1970, 
they rose slightly from 1992 to 1996 (see Appendix Table A- 
2). Meanwhile, NO x emissions from fuel combustion - other 
generally increased since 1940, although a small decline has 
occurred since 1992. Fuel combustion-other contributed less 
than 5 percent of total national NO x emissions in 1998. 

As with NO x emissions, electric utilities contributed 4 
percent of total national S0 2 emissions in 1900. These 
emissions increased by a factor of 5 over the period 1900 to 
1925, but the onset of the Great Depression put a halt to the 
growth in these emissions during the 1930s. As the United 
States recovered from the Depression, emissions from electric 
utilities once again rose. By 1940, SO, emissions levels 
approximated pre-1930 levels. From 1940 to 1970, SO, 
emissions from electric utilities doubled every decade as a 
result of increased coal consumption. By 1970, emissions 
from coal combustion accounted for more than 90 percent of 
total SO, emissions from electric utilities. With the help of 
regulatory controls, SO, emissions from electric utilities using 
all types of energy sources decreased approximately 38 
percent from 1970 to 1996 (see Table A-4). Despite this 
decrease, electric utilities still accounted for 67 percent of the 
total national SO, emissions in 1998. 

In 1940, PM 10 emissions from fuel combustion 
represented approximately 31 percent of nonfugitive dust 
PM 10 emissions. Electric utility PM 10 emissions derive 
primarily from the combustion of coal. Emissions from this 
electric utilities increased by approximately 85 percent 
between 1940 and 1970, which corresponds to an increase in 
electric production using coal as an energy source during the 
same time period. Fuel combustion PM ^emissions have since 
declined from 1970 levels. In terms of PM, 5 , overall fuel 
combustion emissions remained fairly steady from 1990 
through 1998. Fuel combustion sources contributed 9 percent 
of total national 1998 PM 2 5 emissions 

Fuel combustion sources accounted for 5 percent of total 
national Pb emissions in 1970. Despite a 95 percent decline 
since 1970, fuel combustion sources still accounted for 13 
percent of total national Pb emissions in 1998. Fuel 
combustion’s contribution to total NH, emissions remained 
less than 2 percent throughout the 1990 to 1998 time frame. 

The overall decline in emissions from fuel combustion 
sources since the 1970s can be attributed to various regulatory 
actions. As mentioned previously, SO, emissions from 
electric utilities using all types of energy sources decreased 
approximately 24 percent from 1970 to 1998. The SO, 


3-4 ■ 3.0 Summary of National Emissions Trends 




National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


NAAQS, promulgated in 1971, served as a primary factor in 
reducing S0 2 emissions. Another factor was EPA’s 
development of a NSPS in 1971. This NSPS required that all 
new coal-fired power plants emit no more than 1.2 pounds of 
SO, per each million British thermal units (Btus) of electricity 
produced. Most new plants chose to meet this NSPS by 
shifting to lower-sulfur coals. An amendment to the CAA in 
1977 effectively required any new coal-fired power plant not 
only to meet the original NSPS, but also to use some form of 
scrubbing equipment, even when using low-sulfur coal. 
Beginning in December 1976, a NSPS for new, modified, or 
reconstructed fossil-fuel-fired steam generators became 
effective, further promoting reductions in fuel combustion 
emissions. To help reduce PM emissions, EPA promulgated 
a TSP NAAQS in 1971. In 1987, EPA revised the TSP 
standard to include only PM 10 . 

As a result of EPA’s regulations, SO, and PM 10 emissions 
from coal-fired electric power facilities fell by 8 and 85 
percent, respectively, between 1970 and 1993, despite the fact 
that consumption of coal to produce electricity increased 150 
percent during that same period. 2 

Title IV (Acid Deposition Control) of the CAAA is an 
important factor in the decline in SO, emissions from fuel 
combustion sources and has contributed to the general decline 
of NO x emissions. Title IV specifies that annual SO, 
emissions must decrease by 10 million tons from 1980 
emissions levels and suggests, as a guideline, that annual NO x 
emissions be reduced by 2 million tons from 1980 levels. Title 
IV defines two stages by which SO, reductions must occur. 
Phase I, which affects 263 mostly coal-fired units, began 
January 1, 1995. Phase II, which applies to the remaining 
affected Title IV units, began January 1, 2000. To achieve 
these reductions in a cost effective manner, utilities may 
choose from among a variety of possibilities, including 
participating in a market-based allowance trading system. 3 

Many utilities switched to low sulfur coal and some 
installed Hue gas desulfurization equipment (also known as 
scrubbers) for their Phase I units, thereby achieving reductions 
in S0 2 emissions greater than those required under Title IV. 
These changes enabled utilities to reduce SO, emissions from 
their Phase I units from 7.4 million tons in 1994 to 4.5 million 
tons in 1995, the first year of compliance. 

3.4.2 How Have Emissions in the Industrial 
Process Categories Changed? 

Industrial processes include the following Tier 1 
categories: chemical and allied products; metals processing; 
petroleum and related industries; other industrial processes; 
solvent utilization; storage and transport; and waste disposal 
and recycling. 

CO, NO x , and VOC emissions from industrial processes 
peaked in 1950, 1960, and 1980, respectively. Industrial 
processes accounted for 12 percent of total national CO 
emissions in 1940 and 13 percent in 1970, but only 5 percent 


of total national CO emissions in 1998. With regard to NO x 
emissions, industrial processes historically account for only a 
small percentage of the national total. Industrial processes 
accounted for an increasing share of national VOC emissions 
between 1900 and 1970. Although VOC emissions from 
industrial process sources declined by 41 percent from 1970 
to 1998, they still account for 47 percent of total national VOC 
emissions. Emission control devices and process changes 
contributed to the decline in actual VOC emissions since 
1970. 

CO emissions from petroleum and related industries 
increased by a factor of 10 between 1940 and 1970 due to 
increases in refinery throughput and in demand for refined 
petroleum products. Since 1970, CO emissions from the 
petroleum refining industry have decreased by 83 percent due 
to the installation of emission control devices such as fluid 
catalytic cracking units and the retirement of obsolete high 
polluting processes such as the manufacture of carbon black 
by channel process. By 1998, petroleum refining accounted 
for less than 1 percent of total national CO emissions. 

As mentioned previously, industrial processes account for 
only a small percentage of the national total NO x emissions. 
Within the industrial process category, though, waste disposal 
and recycling contributed the highest percentage of NO x 
emissions from 1940 to 1970. NO x emissions from the waste 
disposal and recycling category increased by 300 percent from 
1940 to 1970, but then decreased by 78 percent from 1970 to 
1998 to less than 1940 levels. After 1970, the other industrial 
processes category surpassed waste disposal and recycling as 
the biggest contributor of industrial process NO x emissions. 
The 34 percent increase in NO x emissions from industrial 
processes from 1980 to 1998 occurred partly because of a 
change in the methodology used to estimate emissions 
between 1984 and 1985. 

Emissions of VOCs from petroleum and related industries 
and petroleum product storage and marketing operations 
increased during the mid-1970s as a result of increased 
demand for petroleum products, especially motor gasoline. 
After 1980, the emissions from these sources decreased as the 
result of product reformulation and the implementation of 
pollutant control measures. 

Industrial process S0 2 emissions peaked in 1970, when 
they contributed approximately 23 percent of the total national 
SO, emissions. From 1970 to 1998, emissions decreased by 
79 percent, and by 1998 industrial processes only contributed 
8 percent of the national total SO, emissions. 

A major reason for the decline in industrial process SO, 
emissions since 1970 comes from the decline in metals 
processing emissions. Although SO, emissions from metals 
processing increased by 44 percent over the period 1940 to 
1970, they decreased by almost 91 percent from 1970 through 
1998 due to the increased use of emission control devices. By 
1998, metals processing accounted for approximately 2 
percent of total national S0 2 emissions in 1998, down from 15 
percent in 1970. In addition, S0 2 emissions from nonferrous 


3.0 Summary of National Emissions Trends ■ 3-5 




National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


smelters have fallen significantly. By-product recovery of 
sulfuric acid at these smelters has increased since 1970, 
resulting in the recovered sulfuric acid not being emitted as 
S0 2 . 

Historically, copper processing contributed the largest 
percentage of metals processing S0 2 emissions. To control 
copper processing S0 2 emissions, EPA issued a NSPS to 
regulate SO, emissions from copper smelters built, modified, 
or reconstructed after October 16, 1974. As a result, S0 2 
emissions from copper production facilities declined almost 97 
percent between 1970 and 1998, even though copper 
production only declined by 15 percent during the time period 
(1970 to 1993). 4 

Emissions of SO, from chemical and allied 
manufacturing, petroleum and related industries, and other 
industrial processes accounted for 4 percent of total SO, 
emissions in 1940 and 7 percent in 1970. Since 1970, S0 2 
emissions from these sources have declined by 56 percent. The 
NSPS issued for sulfuric acid manufacturing plants built, 
modified, or reconstructed after 1972 is one major factor 
contributing to this decline. 

PM 10 emissions from industrial processes increased from 
1940 to 1960, primarily as a result of increased industrial 
production. From 1960 to 1970, industrial output continued 
to grow, but PM 10 emissions began to decline due to the 
installation of pollution control equipment mandated by state 
and local air pollution control programs. This decline was 
very slight, though, because the rise in emissions due to 
production increases more than offset the decline in emissions 
caused by the control devices. 

In 1970, industrial processes contributed 66 percent of 
total national nonfugitive dust source PM 10 emissions. By 
1998, this contribution had decreased to 26 percent, reflecting 
the significant progress achieved in reducing emissions from 
industrial processes. 

PM 2 5 emissions from industrial processes have remained 
fairly steady throughout the 1990s, although emissions from 
all industrial process categories declined slightly between 
1995 and 1998. 

In 1970, the industrial process group’s Pb emissions were 
13 percent of almost 221 thousand tons, nationally. Seventy- 
eight percent of this national total came from the on-road 
vehicles category which, by 1998 had been reduced to a mere 
19 tons per year. Thus, while industrial process emissions of 
Pb have been reduced by 90 percent by 1998, they now 
represent 74 percent of the more dramatically reduced national 
total of less than 4 thousand tons per year. 

Similar to PM 25 emissions, emissions of NH 3 from 
industrial process remained fairly steady throughout the 1990s. 
Emissions from all industrial process categories except other 
industrial processes declined slightly between 1995 and 1998. 


3.4.3 How Have Emissions in the On-road 
Vehicle Categories Changed? 

Historically, on-road vehicles have contributed significant 
amounts to national CO, NO x , VOC, PM (if only nonfugitive 
dust emissions are considered), and Pb emissions levels but 
only small amounts to national SO, emission levels. The 
increasing popularity of motorized vehicles during the first 
half of the 20 th century led to a corresponding increase in 
emissions from these vehicles. 

Motorized vehicles became so popular that by 1970, on¬ 
road vehicles accounted for 35 percent of total NO x emissions, 
68 percent of total CO emissions, 42 percent of total VOC 
emissions, and 78 percent of total Pb emissions. 

In an effort to control rising emissions levels, in the early 
1970s EPA developed CO, NO x , and VOC emission limits for 
on-road vehicles. Table 3-9 lists the CO emission standards, 
expressed in grams per mile (gpm), for light-duty vehicles 
(LDV) and light-duty trucks (LDT). Table 3-10 and Table 
3-11 list the NO x and VOC emissions limits for LDVs and 
LDTs, respectively. In addition to these limits, LDTs greater 
than 6,000 pounds and heavy-duty trucks must also meet NO x 
emissions standards. The Federal CO standards through 1975 
applied only to gasoline-powered LDTs, whereas federal 
standards for 1976 and later applied to both gasoline and 
diesel-powered LDTs. In addition, EPA requires that 1984 
and later model years meet a CO standard of 0.50 percent at 
idle (effective with the 1988 model year at higher altitudes). 
Similar to the NO x standards, other CO standards apply to 
LDTs more than 6,000 lbs, heavy-duty engines and vehicles, 
and non-road engines and vehicles. 

With regard to additional CO emissions controls, the 
CAAA requires cars to meet a standard of 10 gpm at 20 
degrees Fahrenheit, starting with the 1996 model year. This 
standard helps ensure that vehicular emission control devices 
work efficiently at low temperatures. 

In general, the emission limits set by EPA resulted in 
significant decreases since 1970 in CO and VOC emitted by 
on-road vehicles. Since 1970, CO and VOC emissions from 
on-road vehicles have declined by almost 43 and 59 percent, 
respectively. NO x emissions from on-road vehicles peaked in 
the late 1970s but have declined slightly since then. Although 
NO x emissions levels from on-road vehicles are slightly higher 
than in 1970, VMT has more than doubled since 1970. The 
federal NO x emissions standards have succeeded in keeping 
emissions growth in check. 

To achieve more significant NO x emissions reductions, 
EPA issued new federal tailpipe emissions standards in 
December 1999 for passenger cars, light trucks, and larger 
passenger vehicles. These standards, known as Tier II 
standards, should help reduce air pollution. These standards 
will take effect beginning in 2004 and will apply to both cars 
and light-duty trucks, including sport utility vehicles (SUVs). 

Under the Tier II standards, affected vehicles must meet 
a 0.07 gpm standard for NO x , which is a 77 percent reduction 


3-6 ■ 3.0 Summary of National Emissions Trends 




National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


for cars and up to a 95 percent reduction for LDTs and SUVs. 
Vehicles weighing less than 6000 pounds will be phased-in to 
the new standard between 2004 and 2007. The heaviest LDTs 
will adopt a three-step approach, spanning from 2004 to 2009. 

When it issued the Tier II standards, EPA also set new 
standards for sulfur levels in gasoline. Gasoline suppliers 
must meet an average sulfur level of 30 ppm by 2005, down 
from the current average of 300 ppm. The new sulfur levels 
will ensure the effectiveness of low emission-control 
technologies in vehicles. Auto makers and refiners will be 
allowed to meet these standards by averaging across the entire 
vehicle fleet and gasoline pool. 

Pb emissions from on-road vehicles, which peaked in the 
early 1970s, have steadily decreased as the result of a series of 
regulatory actions that progressively reduced the Pb content of 
all gasoline. EPA mandates reduced the Pb content of 
gasoline dramatically, from an average of 1.0 gram per gallon 
(gpg) to 0.5 gpgon July 1, 1985, and still further to 0.1 gpgon 
January 1, 1986. In addition, as part of EPA's overall 
automotive emission control program, unleaded gasoline was 
introduced in 1975 for use in automobiles equipped with 
catalytic control devices, which help reduce CO, VOC, and 
NO x emissions. In 1975, unleaded gasoline’s share of the total 
gasoline market totaled 13 percent. By 1982 this share had 
climbed to approximately 50 percent, and by 1996 (due to the 
CAAA prohibition on the use of leaded gasoline in highway 
vehicles after December 31, 1995) unleaded gasoline 
accounted for 100 percent of the total gasoline market. 

Table A-6 (see Appendix A) shows that Pb emissions 
decreased dramatically between 1990 and 1991. This decrease 
is the result of large changes in the values for Pb in gasoline. 
Since the prohibition on Pb in gasoline did not officially begin 
until January 1, 1996, the reductions calculated for 1991 and 
later are primarily the result of limited data on trace Pb levels 
in gasoline for these years. Therefore, the full reduction that 
begins in 1991 may actually occur several years later. 

Pb emissions from on-road vehicles have fallen 
significantly since the introduction of these regulations, and Pb 
emissions from on-road vehicles now account for less than 1 
percent of national Pb emissions, down substantially from 
almost 82 percent of national emissions in 1980. 

In an effort to reduce SO, and PM (as sulfate particles) 
emissions from on-road vehicles, EPA published a regulation 
on August 21, 1990, that governs desulfurization of diesel 
motor fuel. This regulation states that as of October 1, 1993, 
all diesel fuel that contains a concentration of sulfur in excess 
of 0.05 percent by weight or that fails to meet a minimum 
cetane index of 40 cannot be used in motor vehicles. 5 Since 
implementation of these desulfurization regulations, EPA has 
found that SO, emissions from diesel motor vehicles are 
reduced by approximately 75 percent. 

In 1940, on-road vehicles accounted for just over 1 
percent of nonfugitive dust PM 10 emissions. Although the 
1998 emissions from on-road vehicles represent 9 percent of 
the total national PM 10 emissions from nonfugitive dust 


sources, PM 10 emissions from on-road vehicles ini998 are 
approximately the same as those in 1940. 

Absent regulation, it is reasonable to assume that a 
decrease in the price of gasoline will result in greater VMT, 
increased fuel use, and greater emissions, all other factors 
remaining unchanged. However, overall on-road vehicle 
emissions actually declined from 1970 to 1998, despite the 
fact that fuel use increased approximately 50 percent, VMT 
increased over 100 percent, and real gasoline prices decreased 
17 percent during this same time period. 1 These trends 
indicate the success of regulations in reducing emissions from 
on-road vehicles. 

3.4.4 How Have Emissions in the Non-road 
Engines and Vehicle Categories 
Changed? 

Unlike emissions trends for on-road vehicles, emissions 
of CO, NO x , and VOC from non-road engines and vehicles 
increased steadily from 1940 to 1996, with slight reductions in 
CO and VOC emissions over the past 2 years. SO, emissions 
declined by 97 percent from 1940 to 1970, but have since risen 
again, to about one third of 1940 levels. PM 10 emissions 
declined significantly from 1940 to 1960, rose slightly in the 
period from 1960 to 1990, and have declined slightly since 
1990. PM, 5 emissions have remained relatively level for the 
past 8 years. Pb emissions declined approximately 91 percent 
between 1970 and 1985, and they have continued to decline 
slightly since 1985. NH 3 emissions from non-road engines 
and vehicle over the past 9 years are quite negligible. 

Non-road engines and vehicles contributed 9 percent of 
total national CO emissions in 1940, with emissions from 
railroad locomotives accounting for approximately 51 percent 
of this amount. CO emissions from non-road vehicles and 
engines have increased 90 percent from 1940 levels and now 
account for 22 percent of the national total, but now non-road 
gasoline equipment engines are the predominant sources of 
non-road CO emissions. 

In 1900, non-road engines and vehicles accounted for 4 
percent of total national VOC emissions, of which railroad 
emissions contributed 99 percent. Railroad VOC emissions 
peaked in 1920 at 20 percent of the national total and have 
decreased since then to less than 1 percent currently. 
Although railroad emissions decreased, emissions from non¬ 
road engines and vehicles increased 216 percent during the 
1940 to 1998 period. As a result, emissions from non-road 
engines and vehicles as a percentage of the national total 
climbed from approximately 5 percent in 1940 to 
approximately 14 percent in 1998. 

Similarly to on-road vehicle NO x emissions trends, 
emissions from non-road engines and vehicles increased over 
the period from 1940 to 1998. To help slow this growth in 
emissions, EPA established emission control measures (Tier 
I standards) for new non-road diesel engines in certain 
horsepower categories. These standards began to take effect 


3.0 Summary of National Emissions Trends ■ 3-7 




National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


in 1996, with full phase-in for all horsepower categories 
scheduled for 2000. These controls should help reduce the 
amount of NO x emissions emitted by these sources. 

In 1940, S0 2 and PM 10 emissions from non-road vehicles 
and engines both accounted for approximately 16 percent, 
respectively, of total national emissions for these two 
pollutants. Railroads contributed significantly to total 1940 
SO, and PM 10 emissions. From 1940 to 1970, S0 2 and PM 10 
emissions from railroads decreased by 99 percent as a result of 
the obsolescence of coal-fired locomotives. By 1998, non¬ 
road engines and vehicles represented only 1 percent of the 
total 1998 national PM 10 emissions (16 percent of nonfugitive 
dust sources). While PM 10 emissions from non-road engines 
and vehicles declined, so did PM 10 emissions from most other 
nonfugitive dust sources. 

3.4.5 How Have Emissions in the 

Miscellaneous Categories Changed? 

In 1940, CO emissions from “miscellaneous other 
combustion - forest wildfires” accounted for 27 percent of 
total national CO emissions. Although relatively erratic from 
year to year due to the uncontrolled nature of wildfires, 
wildfire CO emissions declined from 1940 levels to only 3 
percent of total national CO emissions in 1998. Similarly, 
annual PM 10 emissions from wildfires vary depending upon 
the incidence of wildfires and upon weather conditions in 
forested areas. 

Miscellaneous source emissions accounted for 13 percent 
of the total 1940 NO x emissions. In 1998, the total emissions 
for the miscellaneous sources accounted for slightly more than 
1 percent of national NO x emissions. 

In 1900, emissions from the miscellaneous sources 
category represented 24 percent of total VOC emissions. By 
1998 they accounted for only 4 percent of national VOC 
emissions. With regard to S0 2 emissions, miscellaneous 
sources accounted for less than 3 percent of total national SO, 
emissions in 1940. By 1998, they contributed less than 0.1 
percent of national S0 2 emissions. Pb emissions from other/ 


miscellaneous sources account for a negligible amount ot 
national Pb emissions. Meanwhile, miscellaneous emissions 
account for a substantial percentage of NH 3 emissions. From 
1990 to 1998, emissions from miscellaneous sources rose 13 
percent, and they accounted for 86 percent of total national 
NH 3 emissions in both 1990 and 1998. 

3.5 HOW HAVE EMISSIONS IN THE 
FUGITIVE DUST CATEGORIES 
CHANGED? 

Fugitive dust source emission estimates were first 
presented in the 1991 Trends report. At that time, EPA based 
its emission estimates upon old emission factors and limited 
data. The methods EPA used to produce the estimates relied 
on State-level default data for most source categories. In the 
1997 Trends report, EPA revised the methods used to produce 
post-1989 estimates in order to reflect improved emission 
factors, improved activity data, or both. 

For several source categories, the methodology for 
estimating fugitive dust emissions utilizes meteorological data 
such as the number of days with greater than 0.01 inches of 
precipitation and average monthly wind speed. These data can 
vary significantly from year-to-year, resulting in highly 
variable emissions. 

PM I0 and PM, 5 fugitive dust emissions can be determined 
from Tables 3-5 and 3-6 respectively. The categories that 
comprise the fugitive dust emission categories are identified 
in Chapter 1, section 1.4. As previously noted, estimates of 
PM 10 fugitive dust prior to 1989 were based on crude 
methodologies and should be strongly discounted. PM 10 
emissions from fugitive dust sources decreased by 24 percent 
from 1985 to 1998 due primarily to the changes in emission 
methodologies for several of the fugitive dust sources, but also 
due to holding wind erosion constant from 1996 forward. 

For 1998, EPA estimates total national fugitive dust PM, 0 
and PM, 5 emissions to be approximately 8 and 2 times higher, 
respectively, than total national nonfugitive PM 10 and PM 25 
emissions. 


3.6 REFERENCES 

1. “Energy Statistics Sourcebook,” Ninth Edition, Pennwell Publishing. August 1994. 

2. “Electric Power Monthly,” Energy Information Administration, U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, DC, various 
editions. 

3. “1995 Compliance Results,” Acid Rain Program, EPA-430/R-96-012, Office of Air and Radiation, U.S. Environmental 
Protection Agency, Washington, DC. July 1996. 

4. “Cement,” Minerals Yearbook, U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Mines, Washington, DC, various years. 

5. “Development of an Industrial SO, Emissions Inventory Baseline and 1995 Report to Congress,” U.S. Environmental 
Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC. December 1994. 


3-8 ■ 3.0 Summary of National Emissions Trends 





National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


Table 3-1. Total National Emissions of Carbon Monoxide, 1940 through 1998 

(thousand short tons) 


Source Category 

1940 

1950 

1960 

1970 

1980 

1990 

1996 

1998 

FUEL COMB. ELEC. UTIL. 

4 

110 

110 

237 

322 

363 

391 

417 

FUEL COMB. INDUSTRIAL 

435 

549 

661 

770 

750 

879 

1,155 

1,115 

FUEL COMB. OTHER 

14,890 

10,656 

6,250 

3,625 

6,230 

4,269 

4,603 

3,843 

Residential Wood 

11,279 

7,716 

4,743 

2,932 

5,992 

3,781 

4,200 

3,452 

CHEMICAL & ALLIED PRODUCT MFG 

4,190 

5,844 

3,982 

3,397 

2,151 

1,183 

1,100 

1,129 

Other Chemical Mfg 

4,139 

5,760 

3,775 

2,866 

1,417 

854 

870 

893 

carbon black mfg 

4,139 

5,760 

3,775 

2,866 

1,417 

798 

841 

863 

METALS PROCESSING 

2,750 

2,910 

2,866 

3,644 

2,246 

2,640 

1,429 

1,495 

Nonferrous Metals Processing 

36 

118 

326 

652 

842 

436 

442 

446 

Ferrous Metals Processing 

2,714 

2,792 

2,540 

2,991 

1,404 

2,163 

944 

1,006 

basic oxygen furnace 

NA 

NA 

23 

440 

80 

594 

117 

126 

PETROLEUM & RELATED INDUSTRIES 

221 

2,651 

3,086 

2,179 

1,723 

333 

356 

368 

Oil & Gas Production 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

38 

26 

27 

Petroleum Refineries & Related Industries 

221 

2,651 

3,086 

2,168 

1,723 

291 

322 

334 

fee units 

210 

2,528 

2,810 

1,820 

1,680 

284 

311 

322 

OTHER INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES 

114 

231 

342 

620 

830 

537 

600 

632 

Wood, Pulp & Paper, & Publishing Products 

110 

220 

331 

610 

798 

473 

391 

416 

sulfate pulping: rec. furnace/evaporator 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

370 

305 

325 

SOLVENT UTILIZATION 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

5 

2 

2 

STORAGE & TRANSPORT 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

76 

78 

80 

WASTE DISPOSAL & RECYCLING 

3,630 

4,717 

5,597 

7,059 

2,300 

1,079 

1,127 

1,154 

Incineration 

2,202 

2,711 

2,703 

2,979 

1,246 

372 

404 

413 

residential 

716 

824 

972 

1,107 

945 

294 

330 

336 

Open Burning 

1,428 

2,006 

2,894 

4,080 

1,054 

706 

111 

735 

residential 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

509 

515 

524 

ON-ROAD VEHICLES 

30,121 

45,196 

64,266 

88,034 

78,049 

57,848 

53,262 

50,386 

Light-Duty Gas Vehicles & Motorcycles 

22,237 

31,493 

47,679 

64,031 

53,561 

37,407 

28,732 

27,039 

light-duty gas vehicles 

22,232 

31,472 

47,655 

63,846 

53,342 

37,198 

28,543 

26,848 

Light-Duty Gas Trucks 

3,752 

6,110 

7,791 

16,570 

16,137 

13,816 

19,271 

18,726 

light-duty gas trucks 1 

2,694 

4,396 

5,591 

10,102 

10,395 

8,415 

11,060 

10,826 

light-duty gas trucks 2 

1,058 

1,714 

2,200 

6,468 

5,742 

5,402 

8,211 

7,900 

Heavy-Duty Gas Vehicles 

4,132 

7,537 

8,557 

6,712 

7,189 

5,360 

3,766 

3,067 

Diesels 

NA 

54 

239 

721 

1,161 

1,265 

1,493 

1,554 

heavy-duty diesel vehicles 

NA 

54 

239 

721 

1,139 

1,229 

1,453 

1,514 

NON-ROAD ENGINES AND VEHICLES 

8,051 

11,610 

11,575 

11,970 

14,489 

18,191 

20,232 

19,914 

Non-Road Gasoline 

3,777 

7,331 

8,753 

10,946 

12,760 

15,394 

17,074 

16,812 

industrial 

780 

1,558 

1,379 

535 

709 

723 

592 

563 

lawn & garden 

NA 

NA 

NA 

5,899 

6,764 

8,237 

9,305 

9,024 

light commercial 

NA 

NA 

NA 

1,905 

2,095 

2,877 

3,514 

3,566 

recreational marine vessels 

60 

120 

518 

1,763 

1,990 

2,117 

2,142 

2,156 

Non-Road Diesel 

32 

53 

65 

430 

829 

1,098 

1,282 

1,180 

construction 

20 

43 

40 

254 

479 

662 

794 

728 

farm 

12 

10 

17 

16 

174 

166 

176 

163 

Aircraft 

4 

934 

1,764 

506 

743 

904 

949 

955 

Railroads 

4,083 

3,076 

332 

65 

96 

121 

112 

115 

MISCELLANEOUS 

29,210 

18,135 

11,010 

7,909 

8,344 

11,122 

11,144 

8,920 

Other Combustion 

29,210 

18,135 

11,010 

7,909 

8,344 

11,122 

11,144 

8,919 

TOTAL ALL SOURCES 

93,616 

102,609 

109,745 

129,444 

117,434 

98,523 

95,480 

89,455 


Note(s): NA = not available. For several source categories, emissions either prior to or beginning with 1985 are not available at the more 

detailed level but are contained in the more aggregate estimate. 

“Other” categories may contain emissions that could not be accurately allocated to specific source categories. 

In order to convert emissions to gigagrams (thousand metric tons), multiply the above values by 0.9072. 


3.0 Summary of National Emissions Trends ■ 3-9 









National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


Table 3-2. Total National Emissions of Nitrogen Oxides, 1940 through 1998 

(thousand short tons) 


Source Category 

1940 

1950 

1960 

1970 

1980 

1990 

1996 

1998 

FUEL COMB. ELEC. UTIL. 

660 

1,316 

2,536 

4,900 

7,024 

6,663 

6,057 

6,103 

Coal 

467 

1,118 

2,038 

3,888 

6,123 

5,642 

5,542 

5,395 

bituminous 

255 

584 

1,154 

2,112 

3,439 

4,532 

3,748 

3,622 

Oil 

193 

198 

498 

1,012 

901 

221 

103 

208 

residual 

6 

23 

8 

40 

39 

207 

101 

206 

distillate 

187 

175 

490 

972 

862 

14 

2 

2 

Gas 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

565 

265 

344 

natural 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

565 

264 

342 

FUEL COMB. INDUSTRIAL 

2,543 

3,192 

4,075 

4,325 

3,555 

3,035 

3,072 

2,969 

Coal 

2,012 

1,076 

782 

771 

444 

585 

567 

548 

Oil 

122 

237 

239 

332 

286 

265 

231 

216 

Gas 

365 

1,756 

2,954 

3,060 

2,619 

1,182 

1,184 

1,154 

natural 

337 

1,692 

2,846 

3,053 

2,469 

967 

978 

943 

Internal Combustion 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

874 

967 

932 

FUEL COMB. OTHER 

529 

647 

760 

836 

741 

1,196 

1,224 

1,117 

Commercial/lnstitutional Gas 

7 

18 

55 

120 

131 

200 

238 

234 

Residential Other 

177 

227 

362 

439 

356 

780 

783 

700 

natural gas 

20 

50 

148 

242 

238 

449 

481 

410 

CHEMICAL & ALLIED PRODUCT MFG 

6 

63 

110 

271 

213 

168 

146 

152 

METALS PROCESSING 

4 

110 

110 

77 

65 

97 

83 

88 

PETROLEUM & RELATED INDUSTRIES 

105 

110 

220 

240 

72 

153 

134 

138 

OTHER INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES 

107 

93 

131 

187 

205 

378 

386 

408 

Mineral Products 

105 

89 

123 

169 

181 

270 

286 

303 

cement mfg 

32 

55 

78 

97 

98 

151 

172 

182 

SOLVENT UTILIZATION 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

1 

2 

2 

STORAGE & TRANSPORT 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

3 

7 

7 

WASTE DISPOSAL & RECYCLING 

110 

215 

331 

440 

111 

91 

95 

97 

ON-ROAD VEHICLES 

1,330 

2,143 

3,982 

7,390 

8,621 

7,089 

7,848 

7,765 

Light-Duty Gas Vehicles & Motorcycles 

970 

1,415 

2,607 

4,158 

4,421 

3,220 

2,979 

2,849 

light-duty gas vehicles 

970 

1,415 

2,606 

4,156 

4,416 

3,208 

2,967 

2,837 

Light-Duty Gas Trucks 

204 

339 

525 

1,278 

1,408 

1,256 

1,950 

1,917 

light-duty gas trucks 1 

132 

219 

339 

725 

864 

784 

1,156 

1,132 

light-duty gas trucks 2 

73 

120 

186 

553 

544 

472 

794 

785 

Heavy-Duty Gas Vehicles 

155 

296 

363 

278 

300 

326 

329 

323 

Diesels 

NA 

93 

487 

1,676 

2,493 

2,287 

2,591 

2,676 

heavy-duty diesel vehicles 

NA 

93 

487 

1,676 

2,463 

2,240 

2,544 

2,630 

NON-ROAD ENGINES AND VEHICLES 

991 

1,538 

1,443 

1,931 

3,529 

4,804 

5,167 

5,280 

Non-Road Gasoline 

122 

249 

312 

85 

101 

120 

132 

159 

Non-Road Diesel 

103 

187 

247 

1,109 

2,125 

2,513 

2,786 

2,809 

construction 

70 

158 

157 

436 

843 

1,102 

1,218 

1,230 

farm 

33 

29 

50 

350 

926 

898 

1,001 

999 

Aircraft 

NA 

2 

4 

72 

106 

158 

167 

168 

Marine Vessels 

109 

108 

108 

171 

467 

943 

985 

1,008 

Railroads 

657 

992 

772 

495 

731 

929 

922 

947 

MISCELLANEOUS 

990 

665 

441 

330 

248 

369 

452 

328 

TOTAL ALL SOURCES 

7,374 

10,093 

14,140 

20,928 

24,384 

24,049 

24,676 

24,454 


Note(s): N A = not available. For several source categories, emissions either prior to or beginning with 1985 are not available at the more detailed 
level but are contained in the more aggregate estimate. 

“Other'’ categories may contain emissions that could not be accurately allocated to specific source categories. 

In order to convert emissions to gigagrams (thousand metric tons), multiply the above values by 0.9072. 


3-10 ■ 3.0 Summary of National Emissions Trends 








National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


Table 3-3. Total National Emissions of Volatile Organic Compounds, 

1940 through 1998 (thousand short tons) 


Source Category 

1940 

1950 

1960 

1970 

1980 

1990 

1996 

1998 

FUEL COMB. ELEC. UTIL. 

2 

9 

9 

30 

45 

47 

49 

54 

FUEL COMB. INDUSTRIAL 

108 

98 

106 

150 

157 

182 

166 

161 

FUEL COMB. OTHER 

1,867 

1,336 

768 

541 

848 

776 

821 

678 

Residential Wood 

1,410 

970 

563 

460 

809 

718 

759 

620 

CHEMICAL & ALLIED PRODUCT MFG 

884 

1,324 

991 

1,341 

1,595 

634 

388 

396 

METALS PROCESSING 

325 

442 

342 

394 

273 

122 

72 

75 

PETROLEUM & RELATED INDUSTRIES 

571 

548 

1,034 

1,194 

1,440 

612 

488 

496 

OTHER INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES 

130 

184 

202 

270 

237 

401 

428 

450 

SOLVENT UTILIZATION 

1,971 

3,679 

4,403 

7,174 

6,584 

5,750 

5,506 

5,278 

Degreasing 

168 

592 

438 

707 

513 

744 

606 

457 

Graphic Arts 

114 

310 

199 

319 

373 

274 

296 

311 

Dry Cleaning 

42 

153 

126 

263 

320 

215 

157 

169 

petroleum solvent 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

104 

92 

99 

Surface Coating 

1,058 

2,187 

2,128 

3,570 

3,685 

2,523 

2,389 

2,224 

industrial adhesives 

14 

41 

29 

52 

55 

390 

356 

160 

architectural 

284 

NA 

412 

442 

477 

495 

484 

491 

Nonindustrial 

490 

NA 

•1,189 

1,674 

1,002 

1,900 

1,957 

2,012 

cutback asphalt 

328 

NA 

789 

1,045 

323 

199 

135 

144 

pesticide application 

73 

NA 

193 

241 

241 

258 

386 

405 

adhesives 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

361 

307 

313 

consumer solvents 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

1,083 

1,081 

1,099 

STORAGE & TRANSPORT 

639 

1,218 

1,762 

1,954 

1,975 

1,495 

1,286 

1,324 

Bulk Terminals & Plants 

185 

361 

528 

599 

517 

359 

211 

217 

area source: gasoline 

158 

307 

449 

509 

440 

282 

163 

167 

Petroleum & Petroleum Product Storage 

148 

218 

304 

300 

306 

157 

172 

178 

Petroleum & Petroleum Product Transport 

57 

100 

115 

92 

61 

151 

118 

122 

Service Stations: Stage 1 

117 

251 

365 

416 

461 

300 

312 

320 

Service Stations: Stage II 

130 

283 

437 

521 

583 

433 

397 

409 

WASTE DISPOSAL & RECYCLING 

990 

1,104 

1,546 

1,984 

758 

986 

423 

433 

ON-ROAD VEHICLES 

4,817 

7,251 

10,506 

12,972 

8,979 

6,313 

5,490 

5,325 

Light-Duty Gas Vehicles & Motorcycles 

3,647 

5,220 

8,058 

9,193 

5,907 

3,947 

2,875 

2,832 

light-duty gas vehicles 

3,646 

5,214 

8,050 

9,133 

5,843 

3,885 

2,839 

2,793 

Light-Duty Gas Trucks 

672 

1,101 

1,433 

2,770 

2,059 

1,622 

2,060 

2,015 

Heavy-Duty Gas Vehicles 

498 

908 

926 

743 

611 

432 

293 

257 

Diesels 

NA 

22 

89 

266 

402 

312 

263 

222 

NON-ROAD ENGINES AND VEHICLES 

778 

1,213 

1,215 

1,878 

2,312 

2,545 

2,664 

2,461 

Non-Road Gasoline 

208 

423 

526 

1,564 

1,787 

1,889 

1,982 

1,794 

lawn & garden 

NA 

NA 

NA 

511 

583 

700 

771 

638 

recreational marine vessels 

16 

32 

124 

736 

830 

784 

777 

780 

Non-Road Diesel 

12 

20 

23 

187 

327 

390 

422 

405 

construction 

6 

15 

13 

94 

135 

181 

206 

199 

farm 

6 

5 

8 

39 

138 

126 

120 

111 

Aircraft 

3 

110 

220 

97 

146 

180 

177 

177 

NATURAL SOURCES 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

14 

14 

14 

MISCELLANEOUS 

4,079 

2,530 

1,573 

1,101 

1,134 

1,059 

940 

772 

Other Combustion 

4,079 

2,530 

1,573 

1,101 

1,134 

1,049 

891 

721 

TOTAL ALL SOURCES 

17,161 

20,936 

24,459 

30,982 

26,336 

20,936 

18,736 

17,917 


Note(s): NA = not available. For several source categories, emissions either prior to or beginning with 1985 are not available at the more detailed 

level but are contained in the more aggregate estimate. 

“Other” categories may contain emissions that could not be accurately allocated to specific source categories. 

In order to convert emissions to gigagrams (thousand metric tons), multiply the above values by 0.9072. 


3.0 Summary of National Emissions Trends ■ 3-11 








National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


Table 3-4. Total National Emissions of Sulfur Dioxide, 1940 through 1998 

(thousand short tons) 


Source Category 

1940 

1950 

1960 

1970 

1980 

1990 

1996 

1998 

FUEL COMB. ELEC. UTIL. 

2,427 

4,515 

9,263 

17,398 

17,469 

15,909 

12,631 

13,217 

Coal 

2,276 

4,056 

8,883 

15,799 

16,073 

15,220 

12,137 

12,426 

bituminous 

1,359 

2,427 

5,367 

9,574 

NA 

13,371 

8,931 

9,368 

subbituminous 

668 

1,196 

2,642 

4,716 

NA 

1,415 

2,630 

2,440 

anthracite & lignite 

249 

433 

873 

1,509 

NA 

434 

576 

618 

Oil 

151 

459 

380 

1,598 

1,395 

639 

436 

730 

residual 

146 

453 

375 

1,578 

NA 

629 

430 

726 

FUEL COMB. INDUSTRIAL 

6,060 

5,725 

3,864 

4,568 

2,951 

3,550 

3,022 

2,895 

Coal 

5,188 

4,423 

2,703 

3,129 

1,527 

1,914 

1,465 

1,415 

bituminous 

3,473 

2,945 

1,858 

2,171 

1,058 

1,050 

1,031 

1,000 

Oil 

554 

972 

922 

1,229 

1,065 

927 

844 

773 

residual 

397 

721 

663 

956 

851 

687 

637 

568 

distillate 

9 

49 

42 

98 

85 

198 

187 

184 

Gas 

145 

180 

189 

140 

299 

543 

556 

558 

FUEL COMB. OTHER 

3,642 

3,964 

2,319 

1,490 

971 

831 

667 

609 

Commercial/Institutional Coal 

695 

1,212 

154 

109 

110 

212 

177 

194 

Commercial/lnstitutional Oil 

407 

658 

905 

883 

637 

425 

338 

275 

Residential Other 

2,517 

2,079 

1,250 

492 

211 

175 

131 

121 

bituminous/subbituminous coal 

2,267 

1,758 

868 

260 

43 

30 

17 

18 

CHEMICAL & ALLIED PRODUCT MFG 

215 

427 

447 

591 

280 

297 

291 

299 

Inorganic Chemical Mfg 

215 

427 

447 

591 

271 

214 

204 

210 

sulfur compounds 

215 

427 

447 

591 

271 

211 

202 

208 

METALS PROCESSING 

3,309 

3,747 

3,986 

4,775 

1,842 

726 

429 

444 

Nonferrous Metals Processing 

2,760 

3,092 

3,322 

4,060 

1,279 

517 

283 

288 

copper 

2,292 

2,369 

2,772 

3,507 

1,080 

323 

114 

119 

lead 

80 

95 

57 

77 

34 

129 

111 

110 

Ferrous Metals Processing 

550 

655 

664 

715 

562 

186 

128 

139 

PETROLEUM & RELATED INDUSTRIES 

224 

340 

676 

881 

734 

430 

337 

345 

Oil & Gas Production 

NA 

14 

114 

111 

157 

122 

95 

96 

natural gas 

NA 

14 

114 

111 

157 

120 

95 

95 

Petroleum Refineries & Related Industries 

224 

326 

562 

770 

577 

304 

234 

241 

fluid catalytic cracking units 

220 

242 

383 

480 

330 

183 

153 

158 

OTHER INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES 

334 

596 

671 

846 

918 

399 

350 

370 

Wood, Pulp & Paper, & Publishing Products 

NA 

43 

114 

169 

223 

116 

102 

108 

Mineral Products 

334 

553 

557 

677 

694 

275 

230 

243 

cement mfg 

318 

522 

524 

618 

630 

181 

147 

156 

SOLVENT UTILIZATION 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

0 

1 

1 

STORAGE & TRANSPORT 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

7 

3 

3 

WASTE DISPOSAL & RECYCLING 

3 

3 

10 

8 

33 

42 

41 

42 

ON-ROAD VEHICLES 

3 

103 

114 

411 

521 

542 

316 

326 

Light-Duty Gas Vehicles & Motorcycles 

NA 

NA 

NA 

132 

159 

138 

127 

130 

Diesels 

NA 

NA 

NA 

231 

303 

337 

83 

85 

NON-ROAD ENGINES AND VEHICLES 

3,190 

2,392 

321 

83 

175 

916 

1,016 

1,084 

Marine Vessels 

215 

215 

105 

43 

117 

251 

237 

261 

Railroads 

2,975 

2,174 

215 

36 

53 

122 

111 

114 

MISCELLANEOUS 

545 

545 

554 

110 

11 

12 

17 

12 

Other Combustion 

545 

545 

554 

110 

11 

12 

17 

12 

Fugitive Dust 




NA 

NA 

0 

0 

0 

TOTAL ALL SOURCES 

19,952 

22,357 

22,227 

31,161 

25,905 

23,660 

19,121 

19,647 


Note(s): NA = not available. For several source categories, emissions either prior to or beginning with 1985 are not available at the more detailed 
level but are contained in the more aggregate estimate. Zero values represent less than 500 short tons/year. 

“Other” categories may contain emissions that could not be accurately allocated to specific source categories. 

The 1985 fuel combustion, electric utility category is based on the National Allowance Data Base Version 2.11, Acid Rain Division, U.S. 
EPA, released March 23,1993. Allocations at the Tier 3 levels are approximations only and are based on the methodology described 
in section 6.0, paragraph 6.2.1.1. 

In order to convert emissions to gigagrams (thousand metric tons), multiply the above values by 0.9072. 


3-12 ■ 3.0 Summary of National Emissions Trends 








National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


Table 3-5. Total National Emissions of Directly Emitted Particulate Matter (PM 10 ), 

1940 through 1998 (thousand short tons) 


Source Category 

1940 

1950 

1960 

1970 

1980 

1990 

1996 

1998 

FUEL COMB. ELEC. UTIL. 

962 

1,467 

2,117 

1,775 

879 

295 

287 

302 

Coal 

954 

1,439 

2,092 

1,680 

796 

265 

264 

273 

bituminous 

573 

865 

1,288 

1,041 

483 

188 

195 

200 

FUEL COMB. INDUSTRIAL 

708 

604 

331 

641 

679 

270 

255 

245 

Coal 

549 

365 

146 

83 

18 

84 

77 

74 

Other 

120 

160 

103 

441 

571 

87 

77 

74 

FUEL COMB. OTHER 

2,338 

1,674 

1,113 

455 

887 

631 

632 

544 

Residential Wood 

1,716 

1,128 

850 

384 

818 

501 

503 

411 

CHEMICAL & ALLIED PRODUCT MFG 

330 

455 

309 

235 

148 

77 

63 

65 

METALS PROCESSING 

1,208 

1,027 

1,026 

1,316 

622 

214 

164 

171 

Nonferrous Metals Processing 

588 

346 

375 

593 

130 

50 

35 

37 

copper 

217 

105 

122 

343 

32 

14 

7 

7 

Ferrous Metals Processing 

246 

427 

214 

198 

322 

155 

108 

112 

primary 

86 

98 

51 

31 

271 

128 

86 

91 

PETROLEUM & RELATED INDUSTRIES 

366 

412 

689 

286 

138 

55 

32 

32 

OTHER INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES 

3,996 

6,954 

7,211 

5,832 

1,846 

583 

327 

339 

Agriculture, Food, & Kindred Products 

784 

696 

691 

485 

402 

73 

61 

61 

country elevators 

299 

307 

343 

257 

258 

9 

6 

6 

terminal elevators 

351 

258 

224 

147 

86 

6 

2 

2 

Wood, Pulp & Paper, & Publishing Products 

511 

798 

958 

727 

183 

105 

78 

82 

sulfate (kraft) pulping 

470 

729 

886 

668 

142 

73 

43 

45 

Mineral Products 

2,701 

5,460 

5,563 

4,620 

1,261 

367 

156 

162 

cement mfg 

1,363 

1,998 

2,014 

1,731 

417 

190 

21 

22 

stone quarrying/processing 

482 

663 

1,039 

957 

421 

54 

24 

24 

SOLVENT UTILIZATION 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

4 

6 

6 

STORAGE & TRANSPORT 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

102 

90 

94 

Bulk Materials Storage 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

100 

87 

91 

WASTE DISPOSAL & RECYCLING 

392 

505 

764 

999 

273 

271 

304 

310 

Open Burning 

220 

333 

544 

770 

198 

206 

211 

215 

residential 

220 

333 

544 

770 

198 

195 

194 

197 

ON-ROAD VEHICLES 

210 

314 

554 

443 

397 

336 

282 

257 

Diesels 

NA 

9 

15 

136 

208 

235 

177 

152 

heavy-duty diesel vehicles 

NA 

9 

15 

136 

194 

224 

168 

144 

NON-ROAD ENGINES AND VEHICLES 

2,480 

1,788 

201 

220 

398 

489 

457 

461 

Non-Road Diesel 

1 

16 

22 

281 

439 

301 

297 

301 

construction 

0 

12 

12 

102 

148 

149 

147 

150 

farm 

0 

4 

7 

140 

239 

78 

72 

69 

Railroads 

2,464 

1,742 

110 

25 

37 

53 

27 

27 

NATURAL SOURCES 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

2,092 

5,307 

5,307 

Geogenic - wind erosion* 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

2,092 

5,307 

5,307 

MISCELLANEOUS 

2,968 

1,934 

1,244 

839 

852 

24,542 

24,836 

26,609 

Agriculture & Forestry 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

5,292 

4,905 

4,970 

agricultural crops** 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

4,745 

4,328 

4,366 

agricultural livestock** 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

547 

577 

603 

Other Combustion 

2,968 

1,934 

1,244 

839 

852 

1,181 

1,254 

1,018 

Fugitive Dust 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

18,069 

18,675 

20,619 

unpaved roads** 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

11,234 

12,059 

12,668 

paved roads** 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

2,248 

2,390 

2,618 

construction** 




NA 

NA 

4,249 

3,578 

4,545 

TOTAL ALL SOURCES 

15,957 

17,133 

15,558 

13,042 

7,119 

29,962 

33,041 

34,741 


Note(s): N A = not available. For several source categories, emissions either prior to or beginning with 1985 are not available at the more detailed 
level but are contained in the more aggregate estimate. Zero values represent less than 500 short tons/year. 

Categories displayed below Tier 1 do not sum to Tier 1 totals because they are intended to show major contributors. 

In order to convert emissions to gigagrams (thousand metric tons), multiply the above values by 0.9072. 


* Although geogenic wind erosion emissions are included in this summary table, it is very difficult to interpret annual estimates of PM 
emissions from this source category in a meaningful way, owing to the highly episodic nature of the events that contribute to these 
emissions. 


** These are the main source categories of PM crustal material emissions. A report by the Desert Research Institute found that about 
75% of these emissions are within 2 m of the ground at the point they are measured. Thus, most of them are likely to be removed or 
deposited within a few km of their release, depending on atmospheric turbulence, temperature, soil moisture, availability of horizontal 
and vertical surfaces for impaction and initial suspension energy. This is consistent with the generally small amount of crustal materials 
found on speciated ambient samples. (See reference 6 in Chapter 2.) 


3.0 Summary of National Emissions Trends ■ 3-13 








National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 -1998 


Table 3-6. Total National Emissions of Directly Emitted Particulate Matter (PM 2 5 ), 

1990 through 1998 (thousand short tons) 


Source Category 

1990 

1991 

1992 

1993 

1994 

1995 

1996 

1997 

1998 

FUEL COMB. ELEC. UTIL. 

121 

105 

106 

112 

108 

107 

156 

160 

165 

Coal 

97 

85 

87 

90 

86 

86 

133 

135 

138 

bituminous 

59 

53 

53 

57 

54 

52 

88 

89 

91 

FUEL COMB. INDUSTRIAL 

177 

151 

159 

172 

183 

203 

166 

161 

160 

Other 

73 

58 

59 

69 

60 

59 

62 

60 

60 

FUEL COMB. OTHER 

611 

638 

662 

568 

550 

589 

537 

466 

466 

Residential Wood 

501 

535 

558 

464 

446 

484 

433 

358 

357 

CHEMICAL & ALLIED PRODUCT MFG 

47 

43 

45 

41 

49 

42 

38 

39 

39 

METALS PROCESSING 

157 

197 

198 

125 

125 

134 

108 

113 

112 

Ferrous Metals Processing 

121 

89 

83 

86 

86 

92 

69 

72 

72 

primary 

103 

72 

66 

68 

68 

74 

53 

56 

56 

PETROLEUM & RELATED INDUSTRIES 

27 

24 

24 

22 

22 

22 

18 

18 

18 

OTHER INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES 

284 

264 

259 

260 

256 

256 

178 

184 

187 

Wood, Pulp & Paper, & Publishing Products 

77 

61 

59 

59 

57 

60 

54 

56 

57 

Mineral Products 

144 

134 

135 

136 

133 

134 

83 

87 

88 

SOLVENT UTILIZATION 

4 

4 

5 

6 

6 

5 

5 

5 

5 

STORAGE & TRANSPORT 

42 

42 

50 

46 

43 

42 

31 

32 

32 

WASTE DISPOSAL & RECYCLING 

234 

238 

239 

288 

271 

247 

234 

236 

238 

Open Burning 

187 

190 

192 

195 

196 

197 

186 

188 

190 

residential 

177 

179 

181 

183 

184 

185 

176 

177 

179 

ON-ROAD VEHICLES 

275 

286 

280 

257 

256 

231 

221 

211 

197 

Diesels 

212 

221 

216 

192 

190 

169 

157 

147 

134 

hddv 

203 

212 

206 

183 

182 

161 

149 

140 

127 

NON-ROAD ENGINES AND VEHICLES 

432 

432 

433 

427 

424 

403 

410 

411 

413 

Non-Road Diesel 

277 

275 

273 

273 

272 

272 

274 

275 

277 

construction 

137 

136 

136 

135 

134 

134 

135 

136 

138 

farm 

71 

71 

70 

69 

68 

67 

66 

65 

63 

NATURAL SOURCES 

314 

312 

334 

76 

324 

172 

796 

796 

796 

Geogenic - wind erosion* 

314 

312 

334 

76 

324 

172 

796 

796 

796 

MISCELLANEOUS 

5,234 

5,004 

4,854 

4,926 

5,360 

4,725 

5,298 

5,652 

5,549 

Agriculture & Forestry 

1,031 

1,019 

976 

887 

941 

952 

952 

964 

964 

agricultural crops*' 

949 

937 

893 

803 

856 

867 

866 

875 

873 

agricultural livestock" 

82 

83 

83 

84 

85 

85 

87 

90 

91 

Other Combustion 

1,037 

807 

666 

693 

913 

734 

1,040 

1,150 

882 

Fugitive Dust 

3,166 

3,178 

3,213 

3,346 

3,506 

3,038 

3,304 

3,535 

3,701 

unpaved roads" 

1,687 

1,684 

1,642 

1,718 

1,709 

1,559 

1,819 

1,892 

1,912 

paved roads" 

562 

600 

606 

616 

634 

585 

598 

635 

655 

construction" 

850 

818 

892 

930 

1,049 

777 

750 

857 

968 

TOTAL ALL SOURCES 

7,958 

7,739 

7,648 

7,327 

7,975 

7,179 

8,194 

8,483 

8,379 


Note(s): NA = not available. Zero values represent less than 500 short tons/year. 

Categories displayed below Tier 1 do not sum to Tier 1 totals because they are intended to show major contributors. 

In order to convert emissions to gigagrams (thousand metric tons), multiply the above values by 0.9072. 

* Although geogenic wind erosion emissions are included in this summary table, it is very difficult to interpret annual estimates of PM 
emissions from this source category in a meaningful way, owing to the highly episodic nature of the events that contribute to these 
emissions. 

* These are the main source categories of PM crustal material emissions. A report by the Desert Research Institute found that about 
75% of these emissions are within 2 m of the ground at the point they are measured. Thus, most of them are likely to be removed or 
deposited within a few km of their release, depending on atmospheric turbulence, temperature, soil moisture, initial suspension energy 
and availability of horizontal and vertical surfaces for impaction. This is consistent with the generally small amount of crustal materials 
found on speciated ambient samples. (See reference 6 in Chapter 2.) 

For a complete understanding of PM 2 5 emissions, one should also consider the emissions of S0 2 , NO x , and NH 3 . These gases react 
in the atmosphere to form ammonium sulfate and ammonium nitrate fine particles; also, some organic particles are formed from VOCs. 
These “secondary” fine particles (in contrast to the directly emitted particles from combustion and fugitive dust) can comprise as much 
as half the PM 2 5 measured in the United States. 7 Source apportionment studies exist to help elucidate the role of primary PM (reflected 
in the NET) and secondary PM. 


3-14 ■ 3.0 Summary of National Emissions Trends 








National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


Table 3-7. Total National Emissions of Lead, 1970 through 1998 

(short tons) 


Source Category 

1970 

1975 

1980 

1985 

1990 

1996 

1998 

FUEL COMB. ELEC. UTIL. 

327 

230 

129 

64 

64 

61 

68 

Coal 

300 

189 

95 

51 

46 

53 

54 

bituminous 

181 

114 

57 

31 

28 

32 

33 

Oil 

28 

41 

34 

13 

18 

8 

14 

FUEL COMB. INDUSTRIAL 

237 

75 

60 

30 

18 

16 

19 

Coal 

218 

60 

45 

22 

14 

13 

13 

bituminous 

146 

40 

31 

15 

10 

9 

9 

Oil 

19 

16 

14 

8 

3 

3 

5 

FUEL COMB. OTHER 

10,052 

10,042 

4,111 

421 

418 

415 

416 

Misc. Fuel Comb. (Except Residential) 

10,000 

10,000 

4,080 

400 

400 

400 

400 

CHEMICAL & ALLIED PRODUCT MFG 

103 

120 

104 

118 

136 

167 

175 

Inorganic Chemical Mfg 

103 

120 

104 

118 

136 

167 

175 

lead oxide and pigments 

103 

120 

104 

118 

136 

167 

175 

METALS PROCESSING 

24,224 

9,923 

3,026 

2,097 

2,170 

2,055 

2,098 

Nonferrous Metals Processing 

15,869 

7,192 

1,826 

1,376 

1,409 

1,333 

1,371 

primary lead production 

12,134 

5,640 

1,075 

874 

728 

588 

628 

primary copper production 

242 

171 

20 

19 

19 

22 

23 

primary zinc production 

1,019 

224 

24 

16 

9 

13 

13 

secondary lead production 

1,894 

821 

481 

288 

449 

514 

505 

secondary copper production 

374 

200 

116 

70 

75 

76 

83 

lead battery manufacture 

41 

49 

50 

65 

78 

103 

117 

lead cable coating 

127 

55 

37 

43 

50 

16 

1 

Ferrous Metals Processing 

7,395 

2,196 

911 

577 

576 

529 

542 

coke manufacturing 

11 

8 

6 

3 

4 

0 

0 

ferroalloy production 

219 

104 

13 

7 

18 

8 

4 

iron production 

266 

93 

38 

21 

18 

18 

19 

steel production 

3,125 

1,082 

481 

209 

138 

160 

173 

gray iron production 

3,773 

910 

373 

336 

397 

343 

345 

Metals Processing NEC 

960 

535 

289 

144 

185 

193 

186 

metal mining 

353 

268 

207 

141 

184 

192 

186 

OTHER INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES 

2,028 

1,337 

808 

316 

169 

51 

54 

Mineral Products 

540 

217 

93 

43 

26 

29 

31 

cement manufacturing 

540 

217 

93 

43 

26 

29 

31 

Miscellaneous Industrial Processes 

1,488 

1,120 

715 

273 

143 

22 

23 

WASTE DISPOSAL & RECYCLING 

2,200 

1,595 

1,210 

871 

804 

609 

620 

Incineration 

2,200 

1,595 

1,210 

871 

804 

609 

620 

municipal waste 

581 

396 

161 

79 

67 

76 

75 

other 

1,619 

1,199 

1,049 

792 

738 

534 

546 

ON-ROAD VEHICLES 

171,961 

130,206 

60,501 

18,052 

421 

19 

19 

Light-Duty Gas Vehicles & Motorcycles 

142,918 

106,868 

47,184 

13,637 

314 

12 

12 

Light-Duty Gas Trucks 

22,683 

19,440 

11,671 

4,061 

100 

7 

7 

Heavy-Duty Gas Vehicles 

6,361 

3,898 

1,646 

354 

7 

0 

0 

NON-ROAD ENGINES AND VEHICLES 

9,737 

6,130 

4,205 

921 

776 

505 

503 

Non-Road Gasoline 

8,340 

5,012 

3,320 

229 

158 

0 

0 

Aircraft 

1,397 

1,118 

885 

692 

619 

505 

503 

TOTAL ALL SOURCES 

220,869 

159,659 

74,153 

22,890 

4,975 

3,899 

3,973 


Note(s): N A = not available. For several source categories, emissions either prior to or beginning with 1985 are not available at the more detailed 

level but are contained in the more aggregate estimate. Zero values represent less than 500 short tons/year. 

Categories displayed below Tier 1 do not sum to Tier 1 totals because they are intended to show major contributors. 

In order to convert emissions to gigagrams (thousand metric tons), multiply the above values by 0.9072. 


3.0 Summary of National Emissions Trends ■ 3-15 








National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 -1998 


Table 3-8. Total National Emissions of Ammonia, 1990 through 1998 

(thousand short tons) 


Source Category 

1990 

1991 

1992 

1993 

1994 

1995 

1996 

1997 

1998 

FUEL COMB. ELEC. UTIL. 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

6 

7 

8 

FUEL COMB. INDUSTRIAL 

17 

17 

17 

18 

18 

18 

49 

48 

47 

FUEL COMB. OTHER 

8 

8 

8 

8 

8 

8 

7 

7 

6 

CHEMICAL & ALLIED PRODUCT MFG 

183 

183 

183 

183 

183 

183 

158 

160 

165 

METALS PROCESSING 

6 

6 

6 

6 

6 

6 

5 

5 

5 

PETROLEUM & RELATED INDUSTRIES 

43 

43 

43 

43 

43 

43 

34 

35 

35 

OTHER INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES 

38 

38 

39 

39 

40 

40 

43 

44 

44 

SOLVENT UTILIZATION 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

STORAGE & TRANSPORT 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

WASTE DISPOSAL & RECYCLING 

82 

86 

89 

93 

93 

93 

84 

84 

86 

ON-ROAD VEHICLES 

192 

205 

217 

227 

239 

259 

231 

240 

250 

NON-ROAD ENGINES AND VEHICLES 

6 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

9 

10 

10 

NATURAL SOURCES 

30 

29 

28 

29 

30 

31 

32 

33 

34 

Biogenic 

30 

29 

28 

29 

30 

31 

32 

33 

34 

MISCELLANEOUS 

3,727 

3,770 

3,814 

3,869 

3,924 

3,979 

4,113 

4,163 

4,244 

Agriculture & Forestry 

3,727 

3,770 

3,814 

3,869 

3,924 

3,979 

4,113 

4,163 

4,244 

livestock agriculture 

3,307 

3,324 

3,341 

3,370 

3,399 

3,427 

3,456 

3,485 

3,520 

fertilizer application 

420 

446 

473 

499 

525 

551 

657 

678 

724 

TOTAL ALL SOURCES 

4,331 

4,390 

4,449 

4,521 

4,589 

4,665 

4,772 

4,837 

4,935 


Note(s): NA = not available. Zero values represent less than 500 short tons/year. 

Categories displayed below Tier 1 do not sum to Tier 1 totals because they are intended to show major contributors. 
In order to convert emissions to gigagrams (thousand metric tons), multiply the above values by 0.9072. 


3-16 ■ 3.0 Summary of National Emissions Trends 








National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


Table 3-9. Carbon Monoxide Federal Emission Standards, 1970 to 1991 



Emission Limit 
(grams of CO per mile) 

Model year 

Light-duty Vehicles 

Light-duty Trucks 
(0 to 6,000 lbs.) 

1970-1971 

23 


1972-1974 

39 

39 

1975-1979 

15 

20 1 

1980-1991 

3.4 2 

18 3 , 10 4 


Note(s): 1 Standard applies for 1975-1978 model years. 

2 Certain vehicles were subject to a less stringent requirement of 7.0 grams 
per mile from model years 1980-1984. 

3 Standard applies for 1979-1983 model years. 

4 Standard applies for 1984-1991 model years. 

The first vehicle standards were implemented by the Federal government in 1968 and were 
concentration based (ppm of exhaust for hydrocarbons and CO). The first mass based 
standards (g/mile) were in 1972. 


Table 3-10. Nitrogen Oxide and Volatile Organic Compound Federal 
Emission Limits for Light-Duty Vehicles, 1972 to 1991 


Emission Limit 
(grams per mile) 

Model Year 

NO x 

VOC 1 

1972-1974 

3.0 2 

3.4 

1975-1979 

3.1 3 , 2.0 4 

1.5 

1980-1991 

1 . 0 5 

0.41 


Note(s): 1 These are exhaust emission standards for VOC. 

2 Standard applies for 1973-1974 model years. 

Standard applies for 1975-1976 model years. 

4 Standard applies for 1977-1980 model years. 

5 Standard applies for 1981 -1991 model years. 

The first vehicle standards were implemented by the Federal government in 1968 and were 
concentration based (ppm of exhaust for hydrocarbons and CO). The first mass based 
standards (g/mile) were in 1972. 


3.0 Summary of National Emissions Trends ■ 3-17 












National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


Table 3-11. Nitrogen Oxide and Volatile Organic Compound Federal 
Emission Limits for Light-Duty Trucks, 1972 to 1991 


Emission Limit 
(grams per mile) 

Model Year 

NO x 


VOC 1 

1972-1974 

3.0 2 


3.4 

1975-1978 

3.1 3 


2.0 

1979-1984 

CO 

c\i 


1.7 

1985-1991 

1.2 5,6 


0.8 


Note(s): 1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 


These are exhaust emission standards for VOC. 

Standard applies for 1973-1974 model years. 

Standard applies for 1975-1978 model years. 

Standard applies for 1979-1987 model years. 

Standard applies for 1988-1993 model years. 

Light-duty trucks with a loaded-vehicle weight more than 3,750 pounds are 
subject to a 1.7 grams per mile standard for these model years. 


The first vehicle standards were implemented by the Federal government in 1968 and 
were concentration based (ppm of exhaust for hydrocarbons and CO). The first mass 
based standards (g/mile) were in 1972. 


Table 3-12. Federal Test Procedure Exhaust Emissions Standards and Schedule 
for Light-Duty Vehicles and Light-Duty Trucks, 1992 to 1998 


Vehicle Useful Life (grams/mile) 

5 Years/50,100 Miles 10 Years/100,100 Miles 1 


Vehicle Emission 


Type 

Category 

Year 2 

THC 3 

NMHC 4 

CO 

NO x 

PM 10 

THC 

NMHC 

CO 

NO x 

PM 10 

LDV 

Tier 0 

1992 

0.41 

0.34 

3.4 

1.0 

0.20 






LDV 

Tier 1 

1996 

0.41 

0.25 

3.4 

0.4 

0.08 


0.31 

4.2 

0.6 

0.10 

LDGTIa 5 

Tier 0 

1992 






0.80 

0.67 

10 

1.2 

0.26 

LDGTIa 

Tier 1 

1996 


0.25 

3.4 

0.4 

0.08 

0.80 

0.31 

4.2 

0.6 

0.10 

LDGTIb 6 

Tier 0 

1992 






0.80 

0.67 

10 

1.7 

0.13 

LDGTIb 

Tier 1 

1996 


0.32 

4.4 

0.7 

0.08 

0.80 

0.40 

5.5 

0.97 

0.10 

LDGT2a 7 

Tier 0 

1992 






0.80 

0.67 

10 

1.7 

0.26 

LDGT2a 

Tier 1 

1997 


0.32 

4.4 

0.7 


0.80 

0.46 

6.4 

1.0 

0.10 

LDGT2b 8 

Tier 0 

1992 






0.80 

0.67 

10 

1.7 

0.13 

LDGT2b 

Tier 1 

1997 


0.39 

5.0 

1.1 


0.80 

0.56 

7.3 

1.53 

0.12 


Notes: 


1 LDGT2: 11 years/120,000 miles 

2 Year Standard is 100 percent of vehicles affected 

3 Total hydrocarbons 

4 Nonmethane Hydrocarbon 

5 Any light light-duty truck up through 3,750 lbs loaded vehicle weight. 

6 Any light light-duty truck greater than 3,750 lbs loaded vehicle weight. 

7 Any heavy light-duty truck up through 5,750 lbs adjusted loaded vehicle weight. 

8 Any heavy light-duty truck greater than 5,750 lbs adjusted loaded vehicle weight. 


The first vehicle standards were implemented by the Federal government in 1968 and were concentration based (ppm of exhaust for 
hydrocarbons and CO). The first mass based standards (g/mile) were in 1972. 


Source: U.S. EPA Office of Mobile Sources, EPA-420-B-98-001 


3-18 ■ 3.0 Summary of National Emissions Trends 














National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


Table 3-13. Total National Emissions by Pollutant and Year 


Year 

CO 

NO x 

voc 

S0 2 

PM 10 

pm 25 

Pb 

nh 3 

1940 

93,616 

7,374 

17,161 

19,952 

15,957 




1941 

91,657 

8,262 

17,235 

22,857 

16,074 




1942 

92,449 

8,389 

16,358 

24,541 

16,192 




1943 

93,241 

8,972 

16,323 

26,846 

16,309 




1944 

94,033 

9,455 

16,539 

27,092 

16,427 




1945 

94,825 

9,548 

17,308 

26,007 

16,545 




1946 

95,617 

9,993 

20,549 

23,297 

16,663 




1947 

96,409 

10,470 

19,507 

26,298 

16,780 




1948 

97,202 

9,985 

19,349 

24,284 

16,898 




1949 

97,993 

10,247 

19,720 

20,801 

17,016 




1950 

102,609 

10,093 

20,936 

22,357 

17,133 




1951 

99,285 

10,535 

20,398 

21,477 

16,976 




1952 

99,784 

11,056 

20,208 

20,826 

16,818 




1953 

100,283 

11,104 

21,258 

20,920 

16,661 




1954 

100,782 

11,663 

21,232 

20,181 

16,503 




1955 

101,281 

11,563 

21,973 

20,883 

16,345 




1956 

101,780 

11,867 

22,902 

21,039 

16,188 




1957 

102,279 

12,248 

22,784 

21,272 

16,031 




1958 

102,778 

13,012 

21,846 

22,634 

15,873 




1959 

103,278 

13,486 

22,703 

22,654 

15,715 




1960 

109,745 

14,140 

24,459 

22,227 

15,558 




1961 

106,207 

13,809 

24,584 

22,142 

15,286 




1962 

108,637 

14,408 

25,036 

22,955 

15,014 




1963 

111,067 

15,100 

27,062 

24,133 

14,742 




1964 

113,498 

15,871 

26,948 

25,301 

14,470 




1965 

115,928 

16,579 

27,630 

26,750 

14,198 




1966 

118,358 

17,390 

27,827 

28,849 

13,926 




1967 

120,788 

17,635 

28,209 

28,493 

13,654 




1968 

123,219 

18,372 

26,568 

30,263 

13,382 




1969 

125,649 

18,847 

26,764 

30,961 

13,110 




1970 

129,444 

20,928 

30,982 

31,161 

13,042 


220,869 


1971 

129,491 

21,559 

30,039 

29,686 

11,335 


243,415 


1972 

128,779 

22,740 

30,297 

30,390 

10,734 


255,555 


1973 

125,935 

23,529 

29,873 

31,754 

10,237 


223,686 


1974 

119,978 

22,915 

28,042 

30,032 

9,636 


178,693 


1975 

116,757 

22,632 

26,079 

28,011 

7,671 


159,659 


1976 

120,963 

24,051 

26,991 

28,435 

7,906 


165,349 


1977 

120,868 

24,808 

27,426 

28,623 

7,739 


152,467 


1978 

122,150 

25,070 

27,655 

26,877 

7,865 


137,964 


1979 

118,475 

24,716 

27,161 

26,941 

7,571 


116,786 


1980 

117,434 

24,384 

26,336 

25,905 

7,119 


74,153 


1981 

114,396 

24,211 

24,956 

24,612 

6,605 


58,884 


1982 

112,260 

23,785 

23,866 

23,319 

5,274 


57,666 


1983 

117,675 

23,639 

25,078 

22,807 

6,021 


49,232 


1984 

116,533 

24,322 

26,015 

23,816 

6,281 


42,217 


1985 

117,013 

23,198 

24,428 

23,658 

45,445 


22,890 


1986 

111,688 

22,808 

23,617 

22,892 

51,137 


7,296 


1987 

110,798 

23,068 

23,470 

22,675 

42,533 


6,840 


1988 

118,729 

24,124 

24,306 

23,135 

61,072 


7,053 


1989 

106,439 

23,893 

22,513 

23,293 

53,064 


5,468 



3.0 Summary of National Emissions Trends ■ 3-19 



























































































National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


Table 3-13 (continued) 


Year 

CO 

NO x 

voc 

S0 2 

PM 10 

pm 25 

Pb 

nh 3 

1990 

98,523 

24,049 

20,936 

23,660 

29,962 

7,958 

4,975 

4,331 

1991 

100,872 

24,249 

21,102 

23,041 

29,560 

7,739 

4,169 

4,390 

1992 

97,630 

24,596 

20,659 

22,806 

29,472 

7,648 

3,810 

4,449 

1993 

98,160 

24,961 

20,868 

22,466 

28,006 

7,327 

3,916 

4,521 

1994 

102,643 

25,372 

21,535 

21,870 

30,913 

7,975 

4,047 

4,589 

1995 

93,353 

24,921 

20,817 

19,181 

27,070 

7,179 

3,929 

4,665 

1996 

95,479 

24,676 

18,736 

19,121 

33,041 

8,194 

3,899 

4,772 

1997 

94,410 

24,824 

18,876 

19,622 

34,226 

8,483 

3,952 

4,837 

1998 

89,454 

24,454 

17,917 

19,647 

34,741 

8,379 

3,973 

4,935 


3-20 ■ 3.0 Summary of National Emissions Trends 























Figure 3-1. Trend in Gross Domestic Product, Population, Vehicle Miles 
Traveled, Total Fuel Consumption, combined VOLATILE ORGANIC 
COMPOUND and NITROGEN OXIDES Emissions, and SULFUR DIOXIDE 

Emissions, 1970 to 1998 


National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1990-1998 



m o in © m 

CM CM T- «<- 


0Z6L o* pexapui 


3.0 Summary of National Emissions Trends ■ 3-21 


1970 1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 






































Figure 3-2. Trend in CARBON MONOXIDE Emissions, 

1940 to 1998 


National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1990-1998 



(suo; jjoqs uojnjuj) suojssjuig 


3-22 ■ 3.0 Summary of National Emissions Trends 


Note: Some fluctuations in the years before 1970 are the result of different methodologies 



























Figure 3-3. Trend in NITROGEN OXIDE Emissions, 

1940 to 1998 


National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1990-1998 



(suoj vioqs uojujiu) suo;ss;iug 


in 

o> 

o> 



m 

00 

o> 


oo 

o> 


m 

h- 

o> 



in 

co 

o> 



in 

m 

o 



m 

O) 




3.0 Summary of National Emissions Trends ■ 3-23 


Note: Some fluctuations in the years before 1970 are the result of different methodologies 



















Figure 3-4. Trend in VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUND 

Emissions, 1940 to 1998 


National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1990-1998 



* 

o 

3 

<D 

E 

o 

</) 


o 

o 


3-24 ■ 3.0 Summary of National Emission Trends 


Year 

□ Fuel Combustion □ Industrial Processing □ Solvent Utilization □ On-road 

□ Non-road □ Miscellaneous 




































Figure 3-5. Trend in SULFUR DIOXIDE Emissions, 1940 to 1998 


National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1990-1998 



(suo) jjoijs uojHjiu) suojssjiug 


LO 

o> 

o> 


o> 

o> 


10 

00 

a> 



LO 

h- 

o> 



LO 

CO 

O) 



LO 

LO 

<J) 



LO 

o> 




3.0 Summary of National Emissions Trends ■ 3-25 


Note: Some fluctuations in the years before 1970 are the result of different methodologies 




















Figure 3-6. Trend in PARTICULATE MATTER (PM 10 ) 
Emissions Excluding Fugitive Dust Sources, 1940 to 1998 


National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1990-1998 



OOCOTj-CNOCOCOTtCMO 

(suoj }joijs uojHjui) suojssjtug 


3-26 *3.0 Summary of National Emission Trends 


1940 1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 

































Figure 3-7. Trend in Directly Emitted PARTICULATE MATTER (PM 2 5 ) 
Emissions Excluding Fugitive Dust Sources, 1990 to 1998 


National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1990-1998 



(SUO} }JOl|S UOjlljUj) SUOjSSjlUg 


(Q 

0 ) 


>- 


3.0 Summary of National Emissions Trends ■ 3-27 


□ Fuel Combustion □ Industrial Processing □ On-road □ Non-road □ Miscellaneous 





















Figure 3-8. Trend in LEAD Emissions, 

1970 to 1998 


National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1990-1998 



CO CM CM t- t- 

(suoj jjoqs uojiijiu) suojssiuig 


<0 

o 

> 


3-28 ■ 3.0 Summary of National Emission Trends 


□ Fuel Combustion □ Industrial Processing □ On-road □ Non-road □ Miscellaneous 




























Figure 3-9. Trend in AMMONIA Emissions, 

1990 to 1998 


National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1990-1998 


00 



(suo; jjoijs uo;i|jUj) suofssjiug 



3.0 Summary of National Emissions Trends ■ 3-29 
























[This page intentionally left blank.] 


Chapter 4.0 Section 406 of the Clean Air Act 

Amendments: Industrial S0 2 
Emissions 


This chapter discusses the impact of industrial sulfur 
dioxide (S0 2 ) emissions, the source categories comprising 
industrial emissions, base year emissions development, 
projected emissions methodology, long-term emission trends, 
and desulfurization of diesel fuel benefits. 

4.1 WHY A SEPARATE CHAPTER FOR 
INDUSTRIAL S0 2 EMISSIONS? 

The major health effects associated with high exposures 
to S0 2 in the ambient air include problems in breathing, 
respiratory illness, alterations in the lung’s defenses, and 
aggravation of existing respiratory and cardiovascular disease. 
People most sensitive to S0 2 include asthmatics and 
individuals with chronic lung disease (such as bronchitis or 
emphysema) or cardiovascular disease. Children and the 
elderly may also be sensitive. 

S0 2 also produces foliar damage on trees and agricultural 
crops. S0 2 and nitrogen oxides (NO x ) in the air cause acidic 
deposition, commonly known as acid rain. Acid rain is 
associated with a number of effects including acidification of 
lakes and streams, damage to high-elevation forests, and 
accelerated corrosion of buildings and monuments. S0 2 and 
NO x emissions also form sulfates and nitrates in the 
atmosphere that can significantly impair visibility. 

This chapter provides information required under section 
406 of the Clean Air Act Amendments (CAAA) of 1990 (42 
U.S.C. 7651 note), which deals with S0 2 emissions from 
industrial sources. Section 406(a) states that: 

Not later than January 1, 1995 and every 5 years 
thereafter, the Administrator of the Environmental 
Protection Agency shall transmit to the Congress a 
report containing an inventory of national annual 
sulfur dioxide emissions from industrial sources (as 
defined in title IV of the Act), including units subject 
to section 405(g)(6) of the Clean Air Act, for all 
years for which data are available, as well as the 
likely trend in such emissions over the following 20- 
year period. The reports shall also contain estimates 
of the actual emission reduction in each year 


resulting from promulgation of the diesel fuel 
desulfurization regulations under section 214. 

As discussed below, the United States (U.S.) Environmental 
Protection Agency (EPA) intends this chapter to provide the 
information required in section 406(a). 

4.1.1 What Source Categories Are Industrial 
Sources? 

Several provisions of the CAA and the CAAA address 
what source categories are industrial sources. Section 402(24) 
of the CAA defines industrial sources. An industrial source is: 

a unit that does not serve a generator that produces 
electricity, a “nonutility unit” as defined in this 
section, or a process source as defined in section 
410(e). 

Further, section 406(a) of the CAAA of 1990 states that 
“industrial sources” include units subject to section 405(g)(6) 
of the CAA. (EPA believes that the reference in section 
406(b) to section 405(g)(5) is erroneous and reads if as 
referring to section 405(g)(6).) Section 405(g)(6) of the CAA 
excludes from the Acid Rain Program under Title IV of the 
CAA certain “qualifying small power production facilities],” 
“qualifying cogeneration facilities],” and “independent power 
production facilities].” 

In order to determine the scope of the term “industrial 
source,” it is necessary to consider several other statutory and 
regulatory definitions and provisions. Section 402(15) of the 
CAA defines “unit” as a “fossil fuel-fired combustion device.” 
Section 72.2 of the regulations implementing Title IV of the 
CAA defines “fossil-fuel fired” as combusting “fossil fuel or 
any derivative of fossil fuel alone or in combination with any 
other fuel, independent of the percentage of fossil fuel 
consumed in any calendar year.” Section 402(17)(A) of the 
CAA provides that a “utility unit” is, with certain exceptions 
(e.g., for certain cogeneration units under section 402(17)(C)), 
any unit that “serves a generator in any State that produces 


Section 406 of the CAAA: Industrial SO-, Emissions ■ 4-1 




National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


electricity for sale” or that, “during 1985, served a generator 
in any State that produced electricity for sale.” 

The categories of “industrial sources” referred to in 
section 406(a) of the CAAA of 1990 must be considered in 
light of these definitions and provisions. With regard to the 
category of “nonutility units,” section 402(25) of the CAA 
defines a “nonutility unit” as “a unit other than a utility unit.” 
This category comprises all stationary combustion devices that 
burn any fossil fuel and that are not affected units under the 
Acid Rain Program in Title IV of the CAA. Because the 
definition of this category excludes units that are utility units 
and, except for nonutility units that opt into the Acid Rain 
Program under section 410 of the CAA, only utility units are 
affected units, the category does not generally include any 
affected units. 

For similar reasons, the next category of industrial 
sources, i.e., “units that do not serve a generator that produces 
electricity,” excludes all utility units and thus generally 
excludes all affected units under the Acid Rain Program in 
Title IV of the CAA. However, there are some units that are 
not affected units under the Acid Rain Program (e.g., units in 
Alaska and Hawaii and certain cogeneration units under 
section 402( 17)(C)) but that do serve a generator that produces 
electricity. Therefore, this category of industrial sources is 
smaller than the “nonutility unit” category and excludes some 
stationary fossil-fuel fired combustion devices that are not 
affected units. 

Another category of industrial sources (i.e., “process 
sources”) is not defined in Title IV of the CAA. Section 
410(d) refers to “process sources” but does not define the 
term. For the purposes of this chapter, a process source is any 
source that emits S0 2 as the result of a production or 
manufacturing process and not as the result of any type of fuel 
combustion. 

The last category of industrial sources comprises units 
that are utility units but that are exempt from the Acid Rain 
Program under section 405(g)(6) of the CAA. This includes 
certain “qualifying small power production facilities” or 
“qualifying cogeneration facilities” under section 3(17)(C) or 
3(18)(B) of the Federal Power Act and certain “independent 
power production facilities” under section 416(a)(2)(A), (B), 
and (D) of the CAA. These terms are defined in section 72.2 
of the regulations implementing the Acid Rain Program. 

Finally, for purposes of applying the 5.60 million ton 
annual cap for S0 2 emissions from industrial sources, which 
is specified in section 406(b) of the CAAA of 1990, 
commercial/institutional/residential sources are excluded. 
This is because the 5.60 million ton cap was developed using 
emissions in the 1985 National Acid Precipitation Assessment 
Program NAPAP 1 inventory that cover sources involving 
industrial combustion and industrial/manufacturing processes 
and do not cover commercial/institutional/residential sources. 
Commercial/institutional/residential sources encompass 
combustion sources, such as those located at hospitals, 


universities, or residences, that are not related to the 
production of physical products. 

In summary, industrial sources covered by the 5.60 
million ton annual cap include: all stationary fossil-fuel fired 
combustion devices, except for affected utility units under the 
Acid Rain Program and except for commercial/institutional/ 
residential sources; and all process sources. 

Table 4.1 presents the source categories defined as 
industrial sources. 

4.2 WHY USE 1996 AS THE BASE YEAR? 

Section 406 of the CAAA of 1990 specifies a 5.60 
million ton cap on S0 2 emissions from industrial sources. 
Congress derived the cap from industrial source emission 
estimates developed as part of the 1985 NAPAP inventory. 
The 1990 National Emission Trends inventory (now called the 
“NET inventory”), developed from the 1985 NAPAP 
inventory, served as the baseline for the previous industrial 
SO, emission projections presented in the report “National 
Annual Industrial Sulfur Dioxide Emission Trends, 1995- 
2015: Report to Congress.” 2 Since that report, EPA, along 
with State and .local agencies, revised the emission inventory 
for two separate time periods for different purposes. The most 
recent effort by EPA was the incorporation of 1996 Periodic 
Emission Inventories (PEI) into the NET inventory. (Refer to 
Section 5.6 for discussions on the PEI). 

Since the 1996 NET inventory contains the most recent 
comprehensive emissions inventory, EPA chose it for the 
baseline for the industrial S0 2 emission estimates in this 
chapter. Table 4.2 presents the source of base year data for 
each of the 48 contiguous States. Thirty states provided 1996 
point source emission inventories to the EPA, and 12 states 
provided acceptable 1996 area source emission inventories. 
The emissions for Oregon are from the Grand Canyon 
Visibility Transport Commission (GCVTC) 1990 inventory. 
The point source emissions for 7 other States and the area 
source emissions for 16 other States are estimated from the 
Ozone Transport Assessment Group (OTAG) 1990 inventory. 
The emission estimates for Alaska and Hawaii point sources 
are from multi-year Aerometric Information Retrieval System/ 
AIRS Facility Subsystem (AIRS/AFS) retrievals, and EPA has 
never sent these estimates to these States for review. EPA 
estimated the area source emissions for Alaska and Hawaii. 
The remaining emissions are from the 1985 NAPAP 
inventory. 

For States that did not provide EPA with a 1996 complete 
inventory, EPA estimated their emissions for 1996 using 
Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA) growth factors. EPA did 
not assume any new controls nor plant retirements for these 
sources. More details on the methodology to estimate 1985 to 
1996 emissions can be found in the NET inventory procedures 
document. 3 

Figure 4.1 presents the S0 2 industrial source emissions by 
major source categories for the year 1996. Fuel combustion 


4-2 ■ 4.0 Section 406 of the CAAA: Industrial S0 2 Emissions 





National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


sources are the largest contributors to industrial SO, 
emissions. 

4.3 HOW DID EPA PROJECT EMISSIONS? 

In addition to a national inventory of SO, emissions, 
section 406 of the CAAA of 1990 also calls for presentation 
of the likely trend in such emissions over the following 20- 
year period. Thus, Congress requires EPA to estimate future 
industrial source SO, emissions under section 406. Although 
section 406 calls for development of the likely trend in 
emission for a 20-year period, EPA developed emission 
estimates from 1996 (the base year) to 2020 since 2020 
represents 20 years from the completion date of this report. 

EPA considered fuel switching, energy efficiency (the 
amount of energy saved from the use of more efficient 
processes through time), and economic growth in the 
development of these projections. In general, less fuel will be 
needed to provide the same amount of energy (in the form of 
steam) to an industrial process and the amount of energy 
needed per unit output will also decrease as processes become 
more efficient. Fuel switching and energy efficiency are 
reflected in energy correction factors based on information 
obtained from the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) 
publication Annual Energy Outlook 1997. Economic growth 
factors were derived from the 1995 BEA Gross State Product 
(GSP) projections by 2-digit Standard Industrial Classification 
(SIC) code. These were applied to estimate changes in 
activity between 1996 and 2030. 4 For the purposes of 
satisfying section 406 requirements, a value was needed on 
3-year intervals through 2020. Therefore, projections were 
calculated by applying growth ratios among existing sources 
to their base year emissions (1996). Interpolated factors were 
then applied to these same categories to estimate the every 
3-year trend. 

Further analysis of the 20-year projection is currently 
underway at EPA and results will be reported in the next 
Trends Report (planned for January 2001 publication). 

4.4 WHAT IS THE TREND IN INDUSTRIAL 
S0 2 EMISSIONS? 

Figure 4.2 presents the estimated trends in industrial 
source S0 2 emissions from 1900 to 2020. Table 4.3 presents 
the emissions by source category for every 3 years starting 
with 1996. The year 2007 is also displayed. The 
subcategories for solvent utilization and storage and transport 
are not displayed since these emissions are very small. 

The emission estimates for the base year 1996 are 4.4 
million short tons. The emission estimates show the industrial 
SO, emissions increasing steadily with the 20-year rate at 
approximately 8 percent. Fuel combustion sources continue 
to be the largest contributor to industrial S0 2 emissions. The 
emission estimates show the fuel combustion emissions 


declining through the years, primarily from the result of energy 
efficiency factors. The largest increase in S0 2 can be seen in 
chemical and allied manufacturing, which is projected to rise 
30 percent in the 20-year period. Total industrial source S0 2 
emissions are currently projected to be approximately 4.7 
million tons in 2020. Refer to Figure 4-3 for a graphical 
presentation of each category’s 2020 contribution. 

4.4.1 Will the Cap Be Exceeded? 

Section 406(b) of the CAAA of 1990 states: 

Whenever the inventory required by this section indicates 
that sulfur dioxide emissions from industrial sources, 
including units subject to section 405(g)(6) of the [CAA ], 
may reasonably be expected to reach levels greater than 
5.60 million tons per year, the Administrator of the [EPA ] 
shall take such actions under the [CAA] as may be 
appropriate to ensure that such emissions do not exceed 
5.60 million tons per year. Such actions may include the 
promulgation of new and revised standards of 
performance for new sources, including units subject to 
section 405(g)(6) of the [CAA], under section 111(b) of 
the [CAA], as well as promulgation of standards of 
performance for existing sources, including units subject 
to section 405(g)(5) of the [ CAA ], under authority of this 
section. 

(As noted above, the reference to section 405(g)(5) should be 
to section 405(g)(6).) 

The current emission estimates indicate that emissions of 
SO, from industrial sources will not exceed the 5.6 million 
tons per year cap through the year 2020. As stated earlier, 
more refinement of these estimates is ongoing and a revised 
projection will be released with the publication of the next 
Trends report. 

4.5 WHAT ARE THE BENEFITS FROM 
DESULFURIZATION OF DIESEL 
FUELS? 

Section 406(a) of the CAAA of 1990 also requires that 
EPA provide to Congress a report that contains estimates of 
the actual emission reduction in each year resulting from 
promulgation of the diesel fuel desulfurization regulations 
under section 214. As a result of the regulation, industry 
reduced the sulfur content of diesel fuel 0.25 to 0.05 percent 
as of October 1, 1993. Figure 4.4 displays the emissions for 
on-road sources with and without desulfurization. As shown, 
emission reductions in the year 1993 are smaller than the other 
years since industry lowered the sulfur content of the fuel in 
October of that year. For the years 1994 through 1998, Figure 
4.4 shows a 51 percent decrease in total vehicle emissions and 
a 400 percent decrease in diesel vehicle emissions, relative to 


Section 406 of the CAAA: Industrial SO, Emissions ■ 4-3 




National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


what emissions would be without the fuel desulfurization 
program. 


4.5.1 Why Are Current 1993 Emissions 

Without Desulfurization Higher Than 
the Values Presented in the 1995 Report 
to Congress? 


For all estimates prior to October 1, 1993, the previous 
calculation assumed a sulfur content of 0.20 instead of 0.25 
percent, since the 0.20 value was the default value listed in 
EPA’s AP-42 Emission Factor document. 5 When PART5 was 
released, the default value was changed to 0.25. However, 
past October 1, 1993, the default value was changed to 0.05, 
since 0.05 is the regulatory value: 


Sulfur Content Year reflected in data 


The 1993 emissions for on-road vehicles without 
desulfurization differs from similar values presented in the 
“National Annual Industrial Sulfur Dioxide Emission Trends, 
1995-2015: Report to Congress.” EPA generated the values 
in the previous report prior to the release of its PART5 
emissions model, which EPA currently uses to generate S0 2 
emissions from on-road sources. 


0.20 (1995 Report) Pre October 1, 1993 
0.25 (This Report) Pre October 1, 1993 
0.05 (This Report) All years after October 1, 1993 


4.6 REFERENCES 


1. “The 1985 NAPAP Emissions Inventory (Version 2): Development of the Annual Data and Modelers’ Tapes.” EPA- 
600/7-89-012a, Air and Energy Engineering Research Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research 
Triangle Park, NC 27711. 

2. “National Annual Industrial Sulfur Dioxide Emission Trends, 1995-2015: Report to Congress.” EPA-454/R-95-001. 
Office of Air and Radiation. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC. June 1995. 

3. “National Air Pollutant Emission Trends Procedures Document, 1900-1996.” EPA-454/R-98-008. Office of Air Quality 
Planning and Standards, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC. May 1998. 

4. “Procedures for Developing Base Year and Future Year Mass and Modeling Inventories for the Tier 2 Final 
Rulemaking,” EPA-420-R-99-034, September, 1999 (found on the web at: http://www.epa.gOv/otaq/tr2home.htm#tsd). 

5. “Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors, Volume I: Stationary Point and Area Sources,” 4th Edition, 

Supplement D through 5th Edition, Supplement B, AP-42. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle 
Park, NC. 1997. 


4-4 ■ 4.0 Section 406 of the CAAA: Industrial S0 2 Emissions 





National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


Table 4-1. Industrial S0 2 Tier Source Categories 


Description Description 

Tierl Tier2 Tier3 Tierl Tier2 Tier3 


FUEL COMB. INDUSTRIAL 

Coal 

bituminous 
subbituminous 
anthracite and lignite 
other 
Oil 

residual 

distillate 

other 

Gas 

Other 

Internal Combustion 

CHEMICAL & ALLIED PRODUCT MFG 

Organic Chemical Mfg 
Inorganic Chemical Mfg 
sulfur compounds 
other 

Polymer & Resin Mfg 
Agricultural Chemical Mfg 
Paint, Varnish, Lacquer, Enamel Mfg 
Pharmaceutical Mfg 
Other Chemical Mfg 
METALS PROCESSING 

Non-Ferrous Metals Processing 
copper 
lead 

aluminum 

other 

Ferrous Metals Processing 
Metals Processing NEC 

PETROLEUM & RELATED INDUSTRIES 

Oil & Gas Production 
natural gas 
other 

Petroleum Refineries & Related Industries 
fluid catalytic cracking units 
other 

Asphalt Manufacturing 


OTHER INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES 

Agriculture, Food, & Kindred Products 
Textiles, Leather, & Apparel Products 
Wood, Pulp & Paper, & Publishing Products 
Rubber & Miscellaneous Plastic Products 
Mineral Products 

cement mfg 
other 

Machinery Products 
Electronic Equipment 
Transportation Equipment 
Construction 

Miscellaneous Industrial Processes 
SOLVENT UTILIZATION 
Degreasing 
Graphic Arts 
Dry Cleaning 
Surface Coating 
Other Industrial 
Nonindustrial 
Solvent Utilization NEC 
STORAGE & TRANSPORT 

Bulk Terminals & Plants 
Petroleum & Petroleum Product Storage 
Petroleum & Petroleum Product Transport 
Service Stations: Stage I 
Service Stations: Stage II 
Service Stations: Breathing & Emptying 
Organic Chemical Storage 
Organic Chemical Transport 
Inorganic Chemical Storage 
Inorganic Chemical Transport 
Bulk Materials Storage 
Bulk Materials Transport 
WASTE DISPOSAL & RECYCLING 
Incineration 

industrial 
Open Burning 

industrial 

Industrial Waste Water 
TSDF 

industrial 

Landfills 

industrial 


Section 406 of the CAAA: Industrial S0 2 Emissions ■ 4-5 











Table 4-2. Industrial SO 2 Point and Area Data Source Submittals 


National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1990-1998 


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4-6 ■ 4.0 Section 406 of the CAAA: Industrial SO, Emissions 



















National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


Table 4-3. Industrial S0 2 Projected Emissions by Selected Source Categories 

(thousand short tons) 


Source Category 

1996 

1999 

2002 

2005 

2007 

2008 

2011 

2014 

2017 

2020 

FUEL COMB. INDUSTRIAL 

3,022 

3,023 

3,024 

3,024 

3,025 

3,022 

3,012 

3,002 

2,993 

2,983 

Coal 

1,465 

1,476 

1,487 

1,498 

1,506 

1,504 

1,499 

1,494 

1,489 

1,484 

Oil 

844 

832 

819 

807 

799 

796 

788 

780 

771 

763 

Gas 

556 

555 

555 

554 

554 

555 

558 

562 

565 

568 

Other 

140 

142 

145 

147 

149 

149 

149 

149 

149 

149 

Internal Combustion 

17 

17 

17 

18 

18 

18 

18 

18 

18 

18 

CHEMICAL & ALLIED PRODUCT MFG 

291 

301 

312 

322 

329 

333 

344 

356 

368 

379 

Organic Chemical Mfg 

4 

4 

5 

5 

5 

5 

5 

6 

6 

6 

Inorganic Chemical Mfg 

204 

212 

220 

227 

233 

236 

245 

254 

263 

272 

Polymer & Resin Mfg 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

Agricultural Chemical Mfg 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

Paint, Varnish, Lacquer, Enamel Mfg 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

Pharmaceutical Mfg 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

Other Chemical Mfg 

81 

83 

85 

87 

89 

90 

92 

94 

97 

99 

METALS PROCESSING 

428 

438 

447 

457 

463 

467 

478 

490 

501 

513 

Non-Ferrous Metals Processing 

283 

295 

306 

318 

325 

329 

340 

351 

362 

374 

Ferrous Metals Processing 

128 

125 

122 

120 

118 

118 

117 

117 

116 

116 

Metals Processing NEC 

17 

18 

19 

19 

20 

20 

21 

22 

23 

23 

PETROLEUM & RELATED INDUSTRIES 

337 

340 

343 

346 

348 

351 

358 

365 

372 

380 

Oil & Gas Production 

95 

91 

87 

84 

81 

80 

78 

76 

73 

71 

Petroleum Refineries & Related Industries 

234 

241 

247 

254 

258 

261 

270 

279 

289 

298 

Asphalt Manufacturing 

8 

8 

9 

9 

9 

9 

10 

10 

11 

11 

OTHER INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES 

349 

354 

359 

364 

368 

370 

376 

383 

389 

395 

Agriculture, Food, & Kindred Products 

4 

4 

4 

5 

5 

5 

5 

5 

5 

5 

Textiles, Leather, & Apparel Products 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

Wood, Pulp & Paper, & Publishing Products 

102 

104 

107 

109 

111 

111 

113 

115 

118 

120 

Rubber & Miscellaneous Plastic Products 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

Mineral Products 

230 

232 

234 

235 

236 

238 

241 

244 

248 

251 

Machinery Products 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

Electronic Equipment 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

Transportation Equipment 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

Miscellaneous Industrial Processes 

13 

14 

15 

16 

16 

16 

17 

18 

19 

19 

SOLVENT UTILIZATION 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

STORAGE & TRANSPORT 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

4 

4 

4 

4 

WASTE DISPOSAL & RECYCLING 

6 

6 

7 

7 

7 

7 

8 

8 

9 

9 

Incineration 

6 

6 

7 

7 

7 

7 

8 

8 

9 

9 

Open Burning 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

Industrial Waste Water 

0 

0 

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TSDF 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

Landfills 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 


All Industrial SO? Emissions _ 4,437 4,466 4,496 4,526 4,545 4,554 4,582 4,609 4,638 4,665 


Section 406 of the CAAA: Industrial S0 2 Emissions ■ 4-7 









Figure 4-1. S0 2 Emissions by Major Industrial Source Category, 1996 


National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1990-1998 


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4-8 ■ 4.0 Section 406 of the CAAA: Industrial S0 2 Emissions 






















Figure 4-2. Industrial S0 2 Emissions 

(1900 to 2020) 


National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1990-1998 


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4.0 Section 406 of the CAAA: Industrial SO ; Emissions ■ 4-9 



























Figure 4-3. S0 2 Emissions by Major Industrial Source Category, 2020 


National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1990-1998 


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4-10 ■ 4.0 Section 406 of the CAAA: Industrial SO, Emissions 





















Figure 4-4. S0 2 On-Road Emissions With and Without Desulfurization, 

1993-1998 


National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1990-1998 



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4.0 Section 406 of the CAAA: Industrial S0 2 Emissions ■ 4-11 


All Vehicles without Desulfurization □ All Vehicles with Desulfurization 
Diesel Vehicles without Desulfurization -o Diesel Vehicles with Desulfurization 




































































































































Chapter 5.0 National Criteria Pollutant 

Estimation Methodologies 


5.1 WHAT INFORMATION IS PRESENTED 
IN THIS CHAPTER? 

This chapter provides a list of the source categories in the 
National Emission Trends (NET) data base whose emission 
estimation methods have changed since the December 1997 
Trends report and the years that were affected by the 
methodology changes. It also provides a brief description of 
the revised methods used to estimate emissions from these 
sources. 

5.2 WHERE DO I GET INFORMATION ON 
THE METHODS USED TO ESTIMATE 
EMISSIONS FOR SOURCES WHOSE 
METHODS DID NOT CHANGE? 

To obtain information on how emissions were estimated 
for sources not listed in this chapter, you should look in the 
Trends Procedures Document. 1 The Trends Procedures 
Document can be obtained on the Internet using the following 
website address: 

http://\vw\v.epa.gov/ttn/chief/ei_data.html#ETDP 

In addition to the Trends Procedures Document, you 
should also look at the chapter entitled “Methodologies That 
Are New” and Appendix B of the Trends update document. 2 
Methods used to estimate emissions for several source 
categories were changed last year, and descriptions of the 
changes are found in the “Methodologies That Are New” 
chapter of that report. The Trends update document can be 
[ found on the Internet using the following website address: 

http://wvvw.epa.gov/ttn/chief/trends98/emtrnd.html 

Table 5-1 provides an overview of all sources whose 
emission estimation methodologies have changed since 
publication of the Trends Procedures Document. 


5.3 WHAT OTHER THINGS SHOULD I 
KNOW ABOUT THE TRENDS 
ESTIMATION METHODS? 

Each year, the United States (U.S.) Environmental 
Protection Agency (EPA) compiles emission estimates used in 
assessing trends in the amounts of criteria pollutants 
discharged into the air. Prior to 1993, the main purpose of the 
published trends was to portray relative progress in the control 
of air pollutant emissions nationally. Those estimates were 
based on standardized emission inventory procedures using 
aggregate national economic and demographic data. As 
interest in, and the need for emission figures for individual 
States and metropolitan areas increased, it was obvious those 
techniques lacked the precision needed to provide the detailed 
data, representative of diverse economic and geographic areas, 
that could realistically assess emission reduction efforts at 
these smaller scales. 

In recent years, the preparation and presentation of 
national emission estimates has evolved toward meeting the 
need for more detailed and more accurate inventories. To 
achieve this goal, revised methodologies have been developed 
that support the incorporation of detailed State Implementation 
Plan (SIP) inventories and/or other regional inventories where 
available (e.g., Ozone Transport Assessment Group [OTAG], 
Grand Canyon Visibility Transport Commission [GCVTC], 
periodic emission inventories [PEI]). In addition to presenting 
national progress in reducing air emissions, local trends in 
emissions are now presented when possible. 

Because of these changes in methodologies, 
comparison of values with previous Trends reports is 

not a valid exercise . You should use caution when 
comparing estimates for the years 1985 to 1997 from 
this report with values in any previous report. 

Table 5-2 provides a general overview of where emission 
values were obtained for each State, for both point and area 
sources. Mobile source emissions are estimated by EPA for 
all States using the MOBILE model. EPA also prepares utility 
emission estimates. Table 5-3 indicates the source of data for 
the two most important pollutants emitted by utilities (nitrogen 
oxides [NOJ and sulfur dioxide [S0 2 ]). 


5.0 National Criteria Pollutant Estimation Methodologies ■ 5-1 






National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


5.4 WHAT SOURCE CATEGORIES ARE 
ESTIMATED USING METHODS THAT 
DIFFER FROM THE PREVIOUS 
REPORT? 

Table 5-1 provides a synopsis of the sources whose 
methods have changed since the publication of the last Trends 
report. 1 Some of the sources listed in Table 5-1 were updated 
during the preparation of emissions for the Trends update 2 and 
were described in the “Methodologies That Are New” chapter 
and Appendix B of that report. The shaded rows in Table 5-1 
indicate source categories that were modified this year and are 
described in the sections of this chapter that follow. 

5.5 HOW WERE EMISSIONS FROM NON¬ 
ROAD SOURCES ESTIMATED? 

One of the major changes in the methods used to estimate 
emissions this year was for non-road sources. EPA’s Office 
of Transportation and Air Quality (OTAQ, formerly the Office 
of Mobile Sources [OMS]) has been working on a model that 
estimates the emissions from these sources for several years. 
The April 1999 draft version of the NONROAD model was 
available for use this year in estimating emissions from this 
source category (http://www.epa.gov/otaq/nonrdmdl.htm). 

In large part, emission estimates for volatile organic 
compounds (VOC), N0 X , carbon monoxide (CO), S0 2 , 
particulate matter (PM) less than 10 microns (PM 10 ), and PM 
less than 2.5 microns (PM 25 ) were calculated using the draft 
version of the NONROAD model, for all gasoline, diesel, 
compressed natural gas (CNG), and liquefied petroleum gas 
(LPG) nonroad equipment types at the 10-digit Source 
Classification Code (SCC) level. There were a few categories 
that were not calculated using the NONROAD model. The 
methods used to calculate emissions for those non-road 
sources are described in section 5.5.4 and 5.5.5. In addition, 
the NONROAD model does not contain emission factors to 
calculate ammonia (NH 3 ) emissions. As a result, NH 3 
emissions were calculated outside the model using fuel 
consumption estimates that were generated from the 
NONROAD model. The methods used to calculate other 
pollutants that are not included in the NONROAD model are 
described in section 5.5.6. 

5.5.1 What Types of Sources are Included in 
the NONROAD Model? 

The NONROAD model includes the following general 
categories: 

• agricultural; 

• airport support; 

• light commercial; 

• construction and mining; 


• industrial; 

• lawn and garden; 

• logging; 

• pleasure craft; 

• railroad; and 

• recreational equipment. 

The model generates emissions at subcategory levels lower 
than the general categories listed above. The subcategories are 
equivalent to 10-digit SCC levels. 

5.5.2 What Years Were Estimated? 

County-level criteria pollutant estimates for non-road 
sources were prepared for all years from 1985-1998 inclusive. 
National emission estimates were calculated for 1970, 1975, 
and 1980. 

5.5.3 Were There Differences in the Methods 
Used to Calculate Non-road Emissions 
for Different Years? 

Yes. EPA calculated county-level emissions differently 
for the periods 1985-1995, 1996, and 1997-1998. The 
methods used to calculate county-level emissions for 1985- 

1995 and 1997-1998 were identical. Two different methods 
were used due to time and budget constraints. 

EPA calculated criteria pollutant emission estimates for 

1996 using the draft NONROAD model adapted to run on a 
DEC Alpha UNIX workstation. A set of 385 input files was 
prepared in order to produce an annual county-level non-road 
emissions inventory for 1996. These input files included a 
default input file for each State that accounted for average 
statewide temperatures and seasonal (summer, fall, winter, and 
spring) Reid vapor pressures (RVP). Emissions for all 
counties in the United States were calculated using the default 
State input files. In some cases however, the estimates for 
particular counties were replaced with county-specific 
estimates, if those counties had significant differences in their 
RVP, fuel characteristics due to reformulated gasoline (RFG) 
and oxygenated fuel requirements, and Stage II controls. 

For areas subject to Phase 1 of the Federal RFG program, 
separate RVP values were modeled in the 1996 NONROAD 
inputs for May through September. Oxygenated fuel was 
modeled in the areas participating in this program in 1996. 
Four seasonal emissions files for each run were then added 
together, and the records for each State were combined to 
produce a database of annual and daily emissions. 

Ozone season daily emissions were also estimated. 
Weekday or weekend day emissions must be specified 
separately when running the NONROAD model (i.e., annual 
and daily emissions cannot be generated during the same 
runs). Because of the time involved in preparing county-level 
estimates for the whole nation, daily emissions were estimated 


5-2 ■ 5.0 National Criteria Pollutant Estimation Methodologies 





National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


by using the summer season emissions generated by the 
NONROAD model, divided by 92 days rather than performing 
an additional set of calculations for weekday or weekend day 
emissions. 

Emissions for 1985-1995 and 1997-1998 were calculated 
differently than 1996 emissions. The NONROAD model was 
run at the national level for all relevant inventory years. Each 
national run included three seasonal (i.e., summer, winter, fall/ 
spring combined) NONROAD model runs per year to estimate 
annual criteria pollutant emissions. Seasonal runs were 
performed to account for differences in average seasonal 
temperature, as well as RVR Fall and spring were combined 
since the average seasonal temperature for those seasons is 
generally equivalent. 

Using the results of the national-level runs, we calculated 
a ratio by dividing national 10-digit SCC-level emission 
estimates for each year by their equivalent 1996 national 
values. County-level emissions were estimated for each year 
by multiplying each ratio times the 1996 county-level, SCC- 
level emissions. This approach ensures that the sum of all 
county-level emissions for any year are equivalent to the 
national-level estimates, but are distributed to the counties 
according to the 1996 distribution. This approach was utilized 
due to time and resource constraints. 

Because the NONROAD model estimates growth in local 
equipment populations using one national average growth rate, 
the effects of growth should be reflected in the national-level 
runs for each alternate year aside from the base year 1996. 
The effects of federal non-road emission standards in future 
years (e.g., years beyond 1996) would also be accounted for. 
Because the model uses one average growth rate for the whole 
nation, the approach of using the 1996 county-level inventory 
as a basis for geographically allocating national inventories for 
other years was assumed to be reasonable. However, 
temperature and fuel inputs to reflect local conditions cannot 
be accounted for when doing a national-level run for a 
specified year. 

As a quality assurance step, category-level emissions 
generated from the 1996 county-level NONROAD model 
UNIX runs and summed to the national level were compared 
with emissions resulting from 3 national, seasonal runs 
(summer, winter, fall/spring combined). Fall and spring 
seasonal runs were combined to save resources, since the 
temperatures for these two seasons are generally similar. This 
was also done to test the viability of the proposed approach for 
other years, which rely on national-level runs geographically 
allocated to the county-level using the 1996 county 
distribution. If a large disparity existed in the results obtained 
when running the model at the county-level versus the national 
level, it could also potentially result in a discontinuity in the 
emissions data from 1996 to 1997, or from 1995 to 1996. The 
results of these two separate runs are, in fact, reasonably 
comparable. 

Revised emission estimates were also calculated for 1970, 
1975, and 1980. Only national estimates are available for 


these years. We determined source category-specific ratios of 
the updated 1985 estimates to the previous Trends values. We 
then multiplied that ratio times the previous national Trends 
non-road value for each year to develop revised estimates. 

5.5.4 Were There Non-road Emission Sources 
That Were Not Estimated Using the 
NONROAD Model? 

Yes. Emissions for recreational gasoline powered 
equipment, aircraft, commercial marine vessels, and 
locomotives were estimated using other methods. EPA has 
determined that the draft version of the NONROAD model 
over estimates the equipment population for recreational 
gasoline powered equipment, so emissions for that category 
were estimated using the Trends methods used before 
introduction of the NONROAD model. For the other non¬ 
road emission sources, the NONROAD model does not 
currently include estimation methods for these categories, so 
the current Trends method found in the Trends Procedures 
Document was used to develop the emission estimates. 1 

5.5.5 How Were Emissions Estimated for 
Categories Discussed in Section 5.5.4 
Above? 

As indicated above, the NONROAD model is still in draft 
form, and emission estimates for certain categories are still 
undergoing review. For example, large populations are 
reported for recreational gasoline equipment. This results in 
emission estimates that are significantly higher than prior year 
estimates. For this reason, EPA requested that emission 
estimates from the existing Trends data base be used in place 
of the NONROAD model estimates for this category. 

Commercial aircraft and general aviation estimates for 
1997 and 1998 were developed from 1996 values using 
updated landing-takeoff operations data from the Federal 
Aviation Administration (FAA) as growth factors. Military 
aircraft, unpaved airstrips, and aircraft refueling emissions 
were grown from 1996 using growth factors consistent with 
the current draft version of the Economic Growth Analysis 
System (EGAS). 3 Information on how the 1996 emission 
estimates for these sources were developed can be found in the 
Trends Procedures Document. 1 

EPA’s OTAQ prepared 1995-1998 VOC, NO x , CO, and 
total PM national emission estimates for commercial marine 
diesel engines. PM 10 was assumed to be equivalent to PM, and 
PM 2 5 was estimated by multiplying PM I0 emissions by a factor 
of 0.92. These new national estimates were distributed to 
counties using the geographic distribution in the existing 1996 
NET data base [i.e., the National Acid Precipitation 
Assessment Program (NAPAP) distribution, or the State- 
supplied distribution, if a State had submitted data under 
OTAG for these categories]. Commercial marine emissions 


5.0 National Criteria Pollutant Estimation Methodologies ■ 5-3 




National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


were not reported under the same SCC for all States in the data 
base. For example, some States reported commercial marine 
diesel emissions under the SCC 2280000000, which could 
potentially include other fuel types (e.g., residual, gasoline). 
Therefore, a distribution was established based on emissions 
for all commercial marine SCCs. Because the OTAQ 
estimates included emissions from residual-fueled vessels, 
emissions corresponding to this SCC were removed, as well as 
emissions from the general SCC 2280000000. Sulfur dioxide 
emissions reported for residual-fueled vessels were not 
removed, however, since OTAQ did not supply revised 
emissions for this pollutant. 

In addition, records for several States had emissions for 
some pollutants, including S0 2 and PM 10 , but no VOC, NO x , 
or CO emissions. We estimated the emissions for these 
pollutants, by using a national average ratio of VOC/PM 10 , 
NO X /PM 10 , and CO/PM 10 which were calculated from the 
available inventory data. These ratios were then applied to the 
PM, 0 emissions to estimate the missing VOC, NO x , and CO 
emissions. 

For the years 1985-1994, we calculated the ratio of the 
1995 revised OTAQ commercial marine emissions to the 
previous 1995 Trends emissions values for each pollutant. 
This ratio was then applied to emission estimates for the 
following SCCs: commercial marine diesel (2280002), 
commercial marine residual (2280003), and commercial 
marine unspecified fuel (2280000). This method was used to 
avoid a large disparity between existing Trends estimates and 
revised OTAQ estimates (which were only available back to 
1995). We did not perform any additional data augmentation 
for these years. 

1997 and 1998 emission estimates for commercial 
gasoline, commercial coal, and military marine vessels were 
grown from 1996 using growth factor values that were 
consistent with the current draft version of EGAS. 

5.5.6 Were Any Pollutant Estimates Prepared 
Differently for Non-road Sources? 

Yes, lead (Pb) and NH V Pb was estimated using methods 
described in section 5.18 of the Trends Procedures Document. 1 
For NONROAD model categories, NH 3 emissions were 
calculated for the years 1990-1998, based on county-level fuel 
consumption estimates obtained from NONROAD model runs. 
Fuel consumption estimates were not available for LPG and 
CNG-fueled equipment. Emission factors provided by EPA’s 
OTAQ were then applied to these activity data to estimate NH 3 
emissions for gasoline equipment (without catalysts) and 
diesel-fueled equipment. The emission factors were derived 
primarily from light-duty on-road vehicle emission 
measurements, and extrapolated to nonroad engines on a fuel 
consumption basis. 

As indicated above, emission estimates for recreational 
gasoline equipment were maintained from the previous version 
of the NET. However, recreational gasoline NH 3 emissions 


were calculated differently. Recreational gasoline equipment 
NH 3 emissions were calculated based on the NONROAD 
model fuel consumption estimates. These estimates were then 
redistributed to existing NET records. This was done to avoid 
having records in the inventory that only contained NH 3 
estimates, since many of the SCCs reported in the NONROAD 
model for this category were not present in the existing Trends 
inventory. In addition, many States had previously reported 
these emissions under the general SCCs 2260001000 (all 2- 
stroke gasoline recreational vehicles) and 2265001000 (all 4- 
stroke gasoline recreational vehicles), instead of the more 
specific recreational equipment types. 

For aircraft, commercial marine, and locomotive 
categories, national fuel consumption estimates for 1996 were 
obtained from various sources. Jet fuel and aviation gasoline 
consumption for general aviation and commercial aircraft were 
obtained from the “FAA Aviation Forecasts Fiscal Years, 
1998-2009.” 4 For aircraft categories, NH 3 emission factors 
developed for diesel engines were applied to all fuel 
consumption estimates, since aviation gasoline consumption 
was determined to be relatively small compared to jet fuel, and 
the aircraft SCCs are not defined by fuel type. Diesel 
consumption estimates for locomotives were obtained from 
“Locomotive Emission Standards - Regulatory Support 
Document (RSD).” 5 For commercial marine, data for distillate 
and residual fuel oil were reported in “Fuel Oil and Kerosene 
Sales.” 6 

To develop NH 3 emissions for 1997 and 1998, 1996 base 
year NH 3 emissions for these categories were projected for 
these categories using growth factors. S0 2 emissions were not 
supplied by OTAQ for commercial marine and locomotives, 
and estimates for this pollutant were projected using growth 
factors as well. NH 3 emissions were reported in the NET 
database for commercial marine and locomotive categories for 
historic years (i.e., 1990-1995); no changes were made to 
these historic estimates. Historic NH 3 emissions were not 
available for aircraft, so there is a disparity between 1995 and 
1996 for NH 3 emissions for this category. 

Once annual NH 3 emissions were calculated, summer 
season daily emissions were estimated using seasonal profiles 
available from the 1985 NAPAP study. SCC-specific summer 
seasonal fractions were applied to the annual emissions to 
generate summer season emissions, which were then divided 
by 92 days to estimate summer season daily emissions. 


5-4 ■ 5.0 National Criteria Pollutant Estimation Methodologies 




National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


5.6 WHAT CHANGES WERE MADE IN THE 
METHOD USED TO ESTIMATE 
NONUTILITY POINT AND AREA 
SOURCE EMISSIONS? 

EPA has tried over the last several years to ensure that the 
NET data base reflects State developed emission estimates 
whenever feasible. For example, 1990 NET emission 
estimates include State-developed data from OTAG and 
GCVTC inventories. Emissions for years following 1990 
were supplemented with data from the Aerometric Information 
Retrieval System (AIRS). PEI and annual submission of 
emissions data for major point sources are required under the 
CAAA. As part of the PEI requirements, States containing 
nonattainment areas (N AAs) needed to submit a PEI for 1996. 
Consequently, one of EPA’s goals was to include data 
developed by the States as part of the 1996 PEI effort in the 
NET. While the CAAA only requires submittal of ozone 
pollutant data for the PEI requirements, annual point source 
reporting is designed to cover all pollutants. Additionally, in 
the guidance provided to the States on the PEI submittal 
process, EPA encouraged States to submit emission estimates 
for all pollutants, since the NET contains estimates for all 
criteria pollutants and is to be the ultimate repository of the 
State data. To reduce the burden of preparing this inventory, 
EPA gave each State a copy of the 1996 NET inventory as a 
starting point in preparing their 1996 PEI. 

In the past, EPA has estimated emissions for this group of 
sources by growing emissions using growth factors derived 
from the U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic 
Analysis (BEA). As mentioned above, some data derived 
from AIRS was also used to supplement the emissions in 
certain years. 

5.6.1 What Steps Were Required to 

Incorporate State PEI Data Into the 
NET? 

The incorporation of the 1996 State/Local emission 
inventory data is a five step process: 

• Data Collection; 

• Quality Control (QC); 

• Data Augmentation; 

• Quality Assurance (QA); and 

• Data Loading. 

In the data collection step, EPA solicited PEI and annual 
point source data from the States. There were four acceptable 
formats States could use to submit their data: 1) the NET 
Input Format, 2) through AIRS/AIRS Facility Subsystem 
(AFS), 3) the Electronic Data Interchange X.12 format, and 
4) the NET Overwrite Format. 


In the QC step, EPA evaluated the data received to ensure 
that States had correctly characterized, on the 1996 Emission 
Inventory Submittal Form, the data they submitted (e.g., 
geographic coverage, pollutants, SCCs, annual and daily 
emissions), that the data were formatted correctly; that 
mandatory data elements were included, and the priority SCCs 
needed to incorporate the data were present (e.g., nonutility 
point and stationary area source SCCs). Any problems found 
were followed-up by a phone call to the State/local agency for 
review and resolution. If basic problems could not be 
resolved, the data were not included in this version of the 
NET. Data not included in this version of the NET will be 
incorporated in FY 2000. 

In the data augmentation step, data elements required for 
the regional scale modeling or this report, that were not 
supplied in the State data set, were added to the NET. EPA 
needs a complete inventory containing VOC, NO x , CO, S0 2 , 
PM ]0 , PM 25 , and NH 3 . We added emission estimates to the 
NET for any of these pollutants if they were not included in 
the State submitted data. Each data element was characterized 
as “mandatory submission” or “data can be augmented.” As 
part of the QC step, all data received was checked to ensure 
that data elements classified as mandatory submission were 
included in the data supplied by the States. 

In the QA step, data were checked for reasonableness. 
Q A reports highlighting questionable data were developed and 
sent to the States for review. Questionable data were either 
confirmed by the State as correct, corrected by the State, or in 
the case where the State did not respond, replaced using the 
data augmentation methods. The QA reports that were sent to 
States for review included: 

• Tier 2 Summary; 

• Top 20 Plants for Each Pollutant with Comparison to 
Current Data; 

• NET Plants Not in the State Data; 

• Geographic Coordinate Exceptions; 

• Stack Parameter Exceptions; and 

• Large Sources Without Emission Controls. 

In the data loading step, EPA loaded State data that met 
the QA criteria, or was resolved during the QA step, into the 
NET data base. This resulted in a fully revised 1996 point and 
area source file. 

5.6.2 How Many States Submitted Data for 
the 1996 PEI Effort? 

Point source data for 34 States and area source data for 13 
States was received as part of the PEI data incorporation 
effort. Figure 5-1 is a map of the United States that indicates 
which States provided 1) point source data that were utilized, 
2) point source data that were not utilized at this time due to 
data quality problems, 3) point and area source data that were 
utilized, and 4) no data. 


5.0 National Criteria Pollutant Estimation Methodologies ■ 5-5 





National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


For the majority of States, the PEI point source submittals 
were made to the AFS. Some States submitted data in 
alternative formats, primarily using the NET Input Format. 

5.6.3 Were Any State-Supplied Data Rejected 
in the QC Phase? 

Yes. A few States’ data were rejected either due to 
problems with data completeness, data format, or both. EPA 
is working to resolve these problems with the individual States 
and hopes to include data from these States in the next release 
of the NET. These States are indicated in Figure 5-1 as States 
whose data will be processed in 2000. 

5.6.4 What Types of Data Were Augmented 
in the Data Augmentation Step? 

As mentioned above, the NET contains emission estimates 
for all criteria pollutants (except Pb). Thus data elements 
and/or pollutant emissions that were missing in the State 
provided data needed to be augmented. The data augmentation 
procedure included augmenting information related to stack 
parameters (height, diameter, velocity, flow, temperature), 
location information (latitude and longitude), operating 
schedule (hours per day, days per week, hours per year, 
seasonal throughput), and emission estimates for pollutants not 
included in the State submittals. A detailed list of the items 
augmented in the data augmentation phase and the individual 
steps taken to augment the various data elements is provided 
in Barnard et. al. 7 and in the draft Trends Procedures 
Document currently being revised. 8 

5.6.5 What Quality Assurance Steps Were 
Taken to Ensure That the State Data 
Were Incorporated Correctly? 

Quality assurance was an essential element of the data 
incorporation process. Extensive internal review of the data 
was performed to ensure that the data were retrieved and 
formatted correctly and that the data augmentation process was 
performed correctly. On-going reviews were made of the data 
to ensure that there were not duplicate records, that emissions 
values were not “out of range”, and that the values for stack 
parameters were within normal operational values. 

The most important part of the QA program was State 
review of the retrieved and augmented data. EPA prepared a 
review package for each State submitting data. The review 
package consisted of a number of reports and tables showing 
a variety of information about the preliminary data set. 

In the past, QA of the NET inventory focused almost 
exclusively on the emission estimates. Due to the NET’S 
change in focus to a modeling inventory, QA of the NET was 
expanded to cover additional data elements including stack 


parameters, geographic coordinates, emission control data, and 
operating schedule data. 

To QA stack parameters, upper and lower limits were 
developed for each stack parameter carried in the NET. The 
Stack Exception Report in the QA package listed stacks in the 
NET where one or more of the parameters was above the 
upper bound or below the lower bound. High and low values 
not corrected by the States were replaced with the 
corresponding upper or lower bound value. The acceptable 
ranges for each stack parameter are listed below: 


Height 

Diameter 

Temperature 

Velocity 


0 ft to 1,250 ft 
0 ft to 50 ft 
32°F to 2,250°F 
0 ft/sec to 650 ft/sec 


To QA geographic coordinates, maps were generated for 
each State showing any facilities that were located outside of 
their State borders when plotted using the geographic 
coordinates supplied by the State. Coordinates not corrected 
by the States were replaced with the coordinates for the county 
centroid based on the State and county codes provided by the 
State. 


5.6.6 What Did EPA Do With Comments 
Received by the States? 

In the early review of the data, several States indicated 
that the emissions for their ozone precursor pollutants were 
not correct. The original downloads from AFS were designed 
to retrieve the default emissions value. However, several 
States indicated that they typically stored emissions data in one 
of the alternative emission fields. As a consequence, EPA 
surveyed the States that submitted data to determine which 
States submitted emissions data in something other than the 
default emissions field. Data for those States was retrieved a 
second time and augmented as required. The emissions for 
those States were re-summarized and sent back to the States 
for a final review. 

Once comments from all of the review packages were 
received, modifications to the emissions or process data were 
made based on the State comments. Modification to the AFS 
PEI data were made to reflect either new data from the 
additional downloads, modifications based on the review 
packages sent out to the States, or based on data that remained 
anomalous (e.g., stack flow rates). 

One portion of the State review package was a list of 
plants not included in the PEI submittals that were in the 
version of the 1996 NET provided to the States as a starting 
point for PEI preparation. Several States provided comments 
on that table indicating that 1) some or all of these facilities 
should be maintained, and 2) indicating that while they should 
be maintained, the emissions should be modified to reflect 
more accurate State-supplied values. The data for these plants 
were extracted from the NET and maintained in a separate file. 


5-6 ■ 5.0 National Criteria Pollutant Estimation Methodologies 




National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


Since the review packages only provided plant totals, ratios of 
old to new plant emissions were used to adjust the values of 
each segment’s emissions and then the data were updated in 
the file. 

5.6.7 Was There Any Additional Data 
Augmentation? 

Yes. In addition to criteria pollutants, the NET also 
houses estimates of NH 3 emissions. None of the States 
submitting PEI data submitted NH 3 emissions. As a 
consequence, the NH 3 emissions from the 1996 NET needed 
to be added back into the revised data base. Two steps were 
taken to perform this augmentation. First, plant-level total 
NO x emissions were calculated for the PEI data submitted by 
the States. Then plant-level summaries of NH 3 from the NET 
were developed. Where a match could be made using the State 
Federal Information Processing Standards (FIPS) code, county 
FIPS code, and plant identification (ID) code, segment-level 
emissions for NH 3 were calculated using the following 
equation: 


NH 3 seg = (NO x seg/NO x plant) * NH 3 plant 


where: 

NH 3 seg 

NO x seg 

NO x plant 

NH 3 plant 


segment-level NH 3 emissions 
PEI segment-level NO x emissions 
PEI plant-level NO x emissions 
NET plant-level NH 3 emissions 


In order to maintain the NH 3 totals currently in the NET, 
NH 3 -only plant/segment-level records were added for those 
facilities that did not match plants in the PEI submitted data. 


5.6.8 Were There Emissions From Any 

Sources Submitted by the States That 
Were Not Incorporated into the NET? 


A few source categories were not updated using State- 
supplied PEI data. These source categories were not updated 
because EPA feels that the consistent methodology and the 
quality of the data involved in the calculation of emissions 
from these categories is at or above that provided by the States. 
For point sources, State-supplied utility emissions data for 
segments with SCCs beginning with 101 were not retained. 
For area sources, the categories not included from State data 
were on-road mobile and non-road. This approach will be 
revised in 2000, as data issues are resolved between the States 
and EPA for the utility and mobile categories. 


5.6.9 How Were Nonutility Point and Area 
Sources for 1997 and 1998 Developed? 

The PEI data incorporation effort was only for 1996 
emissions. Thus, EPA had to develop 1997 and 1998 
emissions internally. Emissions for nonutility point sources 
and many area sources were developed using growth factors. 

To develop 1997 and 1998 emission estimates, EPA 
compiled a set of emission growth factors to apply to the 1996 
NET inventory. For the most part, these growth factors were 
developed using procedures that are similar to those used by 
EGAS. 3 The current, publically available version of EGAS is 
version 3.0. Because EGAS version 3.0 was released in 1995, 
EPA has recently been working to develop an EGAS Version 
4.0. The growth factors used for developing 1997 and 1998 
estimates were developed using the draft version of EGAS 4.0. 
As part of the EGAS version 4.0 development effort, EPA has 
obtained more recent data/models and updated some of the 
underlying EGAS files. Two of the major changes that EPA 
has been performing are: (1) incorporating new economic 
models from Regional Economic Models, Inc. (REMI); and 
(2) revising the EGAS 3.0 crosswalk that is used to assign 
REMI model-derived growth factors to SCCs. The REMI 
models, which included 72 modeling regions in EGAS 3.0, 
cover the continental United States. While many modeling 
regions cover an entire State, some States have separate 
models for ozone NAAs and rest-of-state areas. For this 
effort, updated REMI models were available that provide 
historical (through 1996) and forecast (through 2035) 
socioeconomic data for each of 75 modeling regions in the 
United States (three new modeling regions were added in 
North Carolina). 9 As part of the revisions to the EGAS 3.0 
crosswalk, EPA reviewed each of the previous SCC 
assignments and incorporated new assignments for over 2,600 
additional SCCs. 

The EPA applied REMI model-derived growth factors to 
point sources at the Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) 
code-level whenever SIC code information was available in 
the inventory. Because REMI’s models provide output for 
172 economic sectors, which are roughly equivalent to 3-digit 
SIC codes, REMI output was first directly matched to the SIC 
code information available from the point source component 
of the NET inventory. For some point source records, SIC 
code information was missing, available at less than a 3-digit 
SIC code level, or invalid (did not represent a valid SIC code). 
For these point source records, EPA assigned REMI model- 
derived growth factors to SCCs using the revised EGAS 
crosswalk. Because the REMI models do not include Alaska 
and Hawaii, it was necessary to utilize a different source of 
projections data for these States. The BEA released a set of 
gross State product (GSP) projections in 1995. 10 These 
projections, which are generally available at a 2-digit SIC code 
level, were used to develop growth factors for Alaska and 
Hawaii. The BEA-derived growth factors were first matched 
with point sources in the inventory at the 2-digit SIC code 


5.0 National Criteria Pollutant Estimation Methodologies ■ 5-7 




National Air Pollutant Emission Trends , 1900 - 1998 


level. For point sources with missing/invalid SIC code 
information, and for all area sources, EPA matched BEA data 
with emission sources using an updated EGAS 3.0 crosswalk 
matching BEA sectors with SCCs. 

EGAS 3.0 includes a number of models that project 
energy consumption by sector and fuel type (e.g., residential 
natural gas consumption). The revisions to the energy 
consumption modules in EGAS 3.0 have not yet been 
completed. Because these updates are expected to include the 
use of Department of Energy (DOE) energy projections data, 
EPA compiled the DOE’s forecast data for use in adjusting the 
REMI/BEA data for projected changes in energy intensity." 
Specifically, the EPA calculated the following national energy 
intensity factors for 1996, 1997, and 1998: 

• Residential fuel combustion - projected delivered 
energy by fuel type divided by projected residential 
floor space; 

• Commercial/institutional fuel combustion - projected 
delivered energy by fuel type divided by projected 
commercial floor space; and 

• Industrial fuel combustion - projected delivered 
energy by fuel type for both specific industries (e.g., 
refining industry) and for total industrial fuel use 
divided by projected constant dollar industrial output 
(specific industry or total industrial output). 

Next, EPA calculated the ratios of national 1996 energy 
intensity to both the national 1997 and 1998 energy intensity 
for each sector/fuel type. For residential natural gas 
consumption, for example, EPA developed 1996:1997 and 
1996:1998 ratios of residential natural gas consumption per 
square foot of residential floor space. These ratios were then 
used to adj ust the EGAS modeling region-specific REMI/BEA 
population-based residential fuel consumption growth factors. 

Finally, for VOC emissions, controls were implemented 
for several maximum achievable control technology (M ACT) 
sources. If a source category was subject to MACT in either 
1997 or 1998, the 1996 control efficiency for that source was 
compared with the control efficiency that the MACT control 
would have on VOC. If the 1996 control efficiency was 
greater than or equal to the MACT control efficiency then the 
data was maintained at the 1996 level. If the 1996 control 
efficiency was lower than the MACT standard, then 
uncontrolled emissions were back-calculated using the 1996 
control efficiency and then controlled emissions were 
calculated from the uncontrolled levels using the MACT 
control efficiency. The MACT control efficiency value was 
also inserted into the data base field for control efficiency. It 
was assumed that the MACT controls operated for the entire 
year, even if they were not scheduled to come on-line until the 
middle to latter part of the year. 


5.7 WHAT OTHER METHODOLOGY 
CHANGES WERE THERE? 

Methodology changes or changes in the underlying data 
used to calculate emissions were made for agricultural 
livestock, structural fire, and prescribed burning emissions. In 
addition, corrections were made in how on-road mobile NO x 
emissions were calculated to account for the heavy-duty NO x 
defeat device on heavy-duty diesel engines. (See Section 
5.7.4.) 

5.7.1 What Changes Were Made in How 

Agricultural Livestock Emissions Were 
Calculated? 

EPA had calculated PM and NH 3 emissions from 
agricultural livestock sources using U.S. Department of 
Agriculture (USDA) Census of Agriculture data on animal 
populations. The Census of Agriculture is conducted every 5 
years. Thus, we had been required to develop a methodology 
that could be used to estimate emissions in years between the 
publication of the Census of Agriculture data. EPA used BEA 
State-level farm sector growth factors to estimate emissions 
for the years between Census of Agriculture publications. For 
the time period that EPA had estimated emissions from this 
source category (1990-1997) only one Census of Agriculture 
publication had been prepared (1992). The 1997 Census of 
Agriculture was released in the spring of 1999. An evaluation 
of the actual statistics on livestock populations following 
release of the 1997 Census of Agriculture indicated that the 
livestock population data for 1997 was very similar to the 
1992 data. However, the NET inventory had shown 
approximately a 25 percent drop in total NH 3 emissions from 
1992 to 1997 which was due almost entirely to an 
approximately 40 percent drop in emissions in the livestock 
category. Apparently agricultural commodity prices dropped 
between 1992 and 1997, but livestock populations stayed more 
or less stable. Since the BEA statistics use commodity prices 
rather than animal population data, the post-1992 inventories 
would be underestimated. 

Thus EPA decided that the emission estimates for this 
source category should be revised using more appropriate data 
on animal populations. The 1987 Census of Agriculture data 
were obtained and in conjunction with the 1992 and 1997 data 
a linear estimation method was developed to predict animal 
populations for intermediate years and to project to 1998. The 
linear estimates developed were State and animal specific. In 
some cases, development of the linear regression used to 
estimate animal populations resulted in negative values. In 
those cases, the animal population was set to zero. 

Using the revised animal population data with the current 
emission factors 1 , revised estimates were developed. The 
changes only affected NH 3 and PM emission estimates. 


5-8 ■ 5.0 National Criteria Pollutant Estimation Methodologies 




National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


5.7.2 What Changes Were Made in How 
Structural Fire Emissions Were 
Calculated? 

EPA has an on-going program to improve the quality of 
emission estimates. That program, the Emission Inventory 
Improvement Program (EIIP) routinely evaluates the methods 
used to estimate emissions from various sources. Recent work 
by the EIIP had identified a revision to the loading factor used 
to estimate emissions from structural fires. The revised value 
for the loading factor was obtained from the California Air 
Resources Board. 12 

Using the revised loading factor, emission estimates were 
revised starting with 1990. Since several States submitted data 
for this source during the OTAG data collection process, 
revised and updated 1990 emission estimates for this source 
were developed by EPA only for non-OTAG States. Once the 
1990 estimates were revised, 1991-1995 estimates were 
calculated by usi ng a growth factor developed for the on-going 
revision to EGAS. The growth factor for the revised version 
of EGAS was developed using a regression equation that 
relates national population to the amount of material burned in 
structural fires. State-level population is then used as an input 
to predict the amount of material burned in each State, using 
the regression equation. Both OTAG and non-OTAG 
estimates were grown. 

Estimates for 1996 were developed using updated activity 
data and the California Air Resources Board’s loading factor 
for non-OTAG states. OTAG States were grown using the 
EGAS growth factors. Then, as part of the 1996 PEI data 
incorporation effort, 1996 emissions were replaced by State- 
supplied data obtained during the PEI effort. 

Estimates for 1997 and 1998 were developed identically 
to how the base 1996 data were developed, except that there 
was no replacement with State-supplied data, since there was 
no equivalent to the PEI data for those years. 

5.7.3 What Changes Were Made in How 
Prescribed Burning Emissions Were 
Calculated? 

EPA updated prescribed burning emissions estimates to 
better reflect data now available with which to calculate 
growth in this sector. In earlier versions of the NET, 
emissions for prescribed burning were grown using population 
as a surrogate. EPA felt that population was not an 
appropriate growth surrogate for prescribed burning. A 
method developed for the Section 812 Prospective 13 study 
which held private land acreage constant, but develops a 
growth index for public lands based on national statistics for 
acres burned, was initiated this year. The technique uses 1990 
estimates as a base year, since values for 1990 include actual 
data for a number of States, especially those in the GCVTC 
inventory. 


EPA used information on the fraction of public including 
State-owned and private land from the Section 812 
Prospective study to allocate a portion of the emissions to each 
of these components. Then, a national ratio of acres burned on 
public lands was developed using U.S. Forest Service data. 14 
Growth factors were then developed by calculating a ratio for 
the year of interest relative to 1990 (the base year). The 
growth factor was then multiplied by the fraction of emissions 
attributable to public lands. This value was then added back 
to the remaining emissions (i.e., those attributable to private 
lands) to obtain the emissions for each year. This is a rough 
estimate. The actual number of acres burned each year varies 
greatly and is a function of fuel moisture, fuel density, 
meteorology, and other factors. 

5.7.4 How Did EPA Account for Emissions 
from Heavy-Duty Diesel Engines that 
Used the NO x Defeat Device? 

On October 22, 1998, EPA reached a settlement 
agreement with seven manufacturers of diesel truck engines. 
EPA had found that the engines in as many as 1.3 million 
trucks built over the last 10 years had devices that defeated 
pollution controls. Those allegations were related to excessive 
NO x emissions during highway driving that were not occurring 
during engine certification testing. The engine electronic 
control module would switch to those fuel-efficient, but high 
NO x , operation modes during highway driving. Federal 
officials considered such engine control software “defeat 
devices”, which are illegal under the federal laws. 

For purposes of this report, a defeat device is a vehicle 
component or software which allows excess emissions to be 
produced during operating modes which are not explicitly 
covered by a certification test while still controlling emissions 
during the certification test. In the case of the heavy-duty NO x 
defeat device, the device was active (shut off emission control 
systems) during steady-state operating modes such as cruising 
down the freeway, but was mostly inactive during transient 
operation. It was built into heavy-duty diesel vehicles 
(HDDVs) beginning in the 1988 model year, and completely 
removed by the 2000 model year. In the late 1980’s and early 
1990’s the defeat device was being phased into the fleet and 
was mostly confined to the heavy end of the heavy-duty 
diesels (8a and 8b vehicles). However, by the mid to late 
1990’s it was widespread on virtually all of the heavy end 
engines and most of the medium and light end heavy-duty 
diesels. 

EPA’s MOBILE model used to calculate emissions from 
on-road vehicles is designed based on engine certification 
testing. Thus, the use of the defeat devices by HDDVs caused 
the emission factors calculated by those models to 
underestimate emissions from these vehicles. In order to 
determine that actual emissions arising from the use of these 
devices, EPA developed a series of spreadsheet models to 
provide corrected emission factors for heavy-duty vehicles that 


5.0 National Criteria Pollutant Estimation Methodologies ■ 5-9 




National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


would account for the underestimated emissions. 15 EPA’s 
OTAQ spreadsheets contain multiplicative factors representing 
the ratio of HDDV NO x emissions with the defeat devices to 
the HDDV NO x emissions without the defeat devices. These 
factors differ by calendar year, roadway type, and vehicle 
speed. The HDDV NO x emissions, calculated using the 
MOBILE5b HDDV NO x 


emission factors, were revised by multiplying the appropriate 
factor at the State/county/roadway type level of detail for the 
years 1990 through 1998. Additional details on the 
spreadsheet models can be found at the following website 
address: 

http://www.epa.gov/OMSWWW/m6.htm 


5.9 REFERENCES 

1. “National Air Pollutant Emission Trends Procedures Document, 1900-1996,” EPA-454/R-98-008. Office of Air Quality 
Planning and Standards, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC. May 1998. 

2. “National Air Pollutant Emission Trends Update, 1970-1997,” EPA-454/E-98-007, U.S. Environmental Protection 
Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC. December 1998. 

3. “Economic Growth Analysis System: Version 3.0,” software, reference manual, and user’s guide, U.S. Environmental 
Protection Agency. Available for download from http://www.epa.gOv/ttn/chief/ei_data.html#EGAS. August 1995 

4. “FAA Aviation Forecasts Fiscal Years, 1998-2009,” Office of Aviation Policy and Plans, Federal Aviation 
Administration. March 1998. 

5. “Locomotive Emission Standards - Regulatory Support Document (RSD),” Office of Mobile Sources, U.S. 
Environmental Protection Agency, Ann Arbor, MI. April 1997. 

6. “Fuel Oil and Kerosene Sales,” DOE/EIA-0380, Energy Information Administration, U.S. Department of Energy, 
Washington, DC. 1996. 

7. Barnard, W.R., C. Walvoord, S. Nizich, R.L. Tooly, and D. Solomon, “Incorporation of State Emissions Data into the 
National Emission Trends Data Base,” presented at the Air & Waste Management Association Specialty Conference, 

The Emission Inventory: Regional Strategies for the Future , Raleigh, NC. October 1999. 

8. “National Air Pollutant Emission Trends Procedures Document, Current Methods for Historic and Projection Year 
Emission Estimates,” Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research 
Triangle Park, NC. Draft, in preparation. 

9. “EPA EGAS EDFS-14 Multi-Region County Models,” Nine DOS Models Covering the U.S., Last History Year 1996, 
Regional Economic Models, Inc., CD-ROM. February 18, 1999. 

10. “Regional Projections to 2045,” Volumes 1, 2, and 3, Bureau of Economic Analysis, U.S. Department of Commerce, 
Washington DC. July 1995. 

11. “Annual Energy Outlook 1999, with Projections through 2020,” DOE/EIA-0383(99), Office of Integrated Analysis and 
Forecasting, Energy Information Administration, U.S. Department of Energy. December 1998. 

12. “Emission Inventory Procedural Manual, Volume III: Methods for Assessing Area Source Emissions,” California EPA: 
Air Resources Board. 1994. 

13. “The Benefits and Costs of the Clean Air Act 1990 to 2010,” EPA Report to Congress, EPA-410-R-99-001, U.S. 
Environmental Protection Agency. 1999. 

14. “Forest Statistics of the United States, 1987,” USFS publication, PNW-RB-168, U.S. Forest Service. September 1989. 

15. “Development and Use of Heavy-Duty NO x Defeat Device Emission Effects for MOBILE5 and MOBILE 6,” EPA420- 
P-99-030, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. October 1999. 


5-10 ■ 5.0 National Criteria Pollutant Estimation Methodologies 





National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


Table 5-1. Emission Estimation Methods That Have Changed Since the Last Report 


Year of Inventory 

Pollutant 

Category 

Methodology Change* 

1990 

CO, VOC, NO, 

Primarily nonutility point 
sources and 17 states 
worth of area sources 

A combination of Ozone Transport Assessment Group (OTAG), Grand 
Canyon Visibility Transport Commission Inventory (GCVTC), and 
Aerometric Information Retrieval System (AIRS) data was added to 
inventory, replacing some units but primarily just adding more units. 

(Ozone season daily data received was developed into annual data). 

1990 

F*Mio> EM 2 5, S0 2 

As above 

State data received as above was augmented with PM and S0 2 data 
through an S0 2 and PM to NO, uncontrolled emission factor ratio. 

1991-1995 

All but Pb 

Primarily nonutility point 
sources and 17 states 
worth of area sources 

NAPAP, AIRS data, GCVTC and Grand Canyon projections from the 

1990 inventory using Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA) growth 
indicators. 

1990 

All but Pb 

on-road mobile 

1990, 1995, 1996 use state-supplied MOBILE model inputs where 
applicable. See Reference 1 for a list of States supplying model inputs. 

1990 

All but Pb 

on-road mobile 

Used state supplied vehicle miles traveled (VMT) where applicable. See 
Reference 1 for a list of States providing VMT. 

1985-1989 

All but Pb 

chemical and allied 

Removed rule effectiveness from pre-1990 chemical and allied product 
emissions. 

1985-1994 

NO x 

utilities 

Used NO x emission rates from Acid Rain Division (ARD) instead of AP-42 
emission factors. 

1994-1998 

NO x , S0 2 

utilities 

Based Phase 1 units on CEM data from ARD, remaining units are from 
DOE767 survey data (small amount of units). 

1996 

All but Pb 

nonutility point (35 states) 
and area sources (14 
states) 

Added state-supplied data directly received from states or retrieved from 
AIRS as part of the PEI inventory effort, as directed by the states. 

5 State submittals were select cities only. 

1997-1998 

All but Pb 

nonutility point and area 
sources 

Projected through 1998 based on the 1996 PEI enhanced database using 
EGAS derived growth factors and BEA growth factors where applicable. 

1970, 1975, 1980 

All but Pb 

non-road sources 

Generated national-level nonroad emission estimates based on category- 
specific ratios of 1996 NON ROAD model outputs to previous year national 
estimates. 

1985-1998 

All but Pb 

non-road sources 

Ran the beta version of the NONROAD model for all counties in U.S. for 
1996. Used the NONROAD model to calculate national emissions for the 
other years and then used SCC-specific ratios for the other years relative 
to 1996 (year in question/1996) to determine county-level estimates. 

1985-1998 

All but Pb 

non-road sources 

For commercial marine diesel, EPA’s OTAQ provided revised national 

VOC, NO x , CO, and PM emission estimates for commercial marine diesel 
engines. National estimates were distributed to counties using the 
geographic distribution in the existing NET. 

1990-1998 

All but Pb 

Miscellaneous-agric. 

forestry 

Revised allocation of Census of Agriculture activity data between the 

1990 and 1997 census: used agricultural surrogates instead of economic 
surrogates. 

1990-1998 

PM 

Miscellaneous -agric. 
crops 

Began using tillage activity data using the Conservation Technology 
Information Center, Purdue University, data, and also changed silt value 
methodology from 1990 onward. 

1989-1998 

PM 

Miscellaneous-managed 

burning 

Based on USDA Forest Service inventory of PM from prescribed burning. 
Public percentage of acres burned projected from 1990 using national- 
level growth factor developed from total U.S. acres burned, while private 
portion held constant. 

1990-1998 

PM 

Miscellaneous 

-construction 

Changed the emission factor in 1990: changed from using a former AP-42 
value to using latest AP-42 findings report: “Improvement of Specific 
Emission Factors” - change occurred in Trends year 1997. 

1990-1998 

PM 

paved roads 

The rain correction factor in the paved road equation was reduced by 50 
percent for the years 1990 onward due to uncertainty associated with the 
actual reduction in emissions due to precipitation on paved road surfaces. 

1990-1998 

All but Pb 

structural fires 

For non-OTAG States, revised 1990 and 1996 emissions based on new 
loading factor value. Projected all States using EGAS regression 
equations, which relate State-level population to the amount of material 
burned in structure fires. 

* For a list of specific 

data sources usee 

for each State, please see Section 4.1 of reference 8. 


5.0 National Criteria Pollutant Estimation Methodologies ■ 5-11 


































National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


Table 5-2. Point and Area Source Data Submitted 




Point Sources 


Area Sources 

State 

Source 

Adjustments to Point Source Data 

Source 

Adjustments to Area Source Data 

Alabama 

PEI 


PEI 

Birmingham NAA Only 

Alabama 

OTAG 

Backcast to 1990 using BEA. Average 
Summer Day estimated using 
methodology described. 

NAPAP 


Arizona 

NAPAP 


NAPAP 


Arkansas 

OTAG 

Average Summer Day estimated using 
default temporal factors. 

NAPAP 


California 

PEI 


PEI 


Colorado 

PEI 


NAPAP 


Connecticut 

PEI 


PEI 


Delaware 

PEI 


PEI 


Florida 

PEI 


OTAG 

Added Non-road emissions estimates from 
Int. Inventory to Jacksonville (Duval County). 

Georgia 

PEI 

Only Atlanta not statewide 

PEI 

Only Atlanta not statewide 

Georgia 

OTAG 

Average Summer Day estimated using 
default temporal factors. 

OTAG 


Idaho 

NAPAP 

PEI data submitted but not incorporated 

NAPAP 

PEI data submitted but not incorporated into 



into NET inventory. 


NET inventory. 

Illinois 

PEI 


OTAG 


Indiana 

PEI 


PEI 


Iowa 

NAPAP 


NAPAP 


Kansas 

PEI 


NAPAP 


Kentucky 

PEI 


OTAG 


Louisiana 

PEI 


PEI 


Maine 

PEI 


OTAG 


Maryland 

PEI 


PEI 


Massachusetts 

PEI 


NAPAP 


Michigan 

PEI 


OTAG 


Minnesota 

OTAG 

Average Summer Day estimated using 
methodology described above. 

NAPAP 


Mississippi 

NAPAP 


NAPAP 


Missouri 

PEI 

Only partial state. 

PEI 

St. Louis NAA Only 

Missouri 

OTAG 

Backcast to 1990 using BEA. Average 
Summer Day estimated using 
methodology described above. 



Montana 

PEI 


NAPAP 


Nebraska 

PEI 


NAPAP 


Nevada 

NAPAP 


NAPAP 


New Hampshire 

PEI 


OTAG 


New Jersey 

OTAG 


OTAG 


New Mexico 

NAPAP 


NAPAP 


New York 

OTAG 


OTAG 


North Carolina 

PEI 


OTAG 

Average Summer Day estimated using 
default temporal factors. 

North Dakota 

PEI 


NAPAP 


Ohio 

OTAG 

Average Summer Day estimated using 

OTAG 

Assigned SCCs and converted from kgs to 



methodology described above. 


tons. NO x and CO from Int. Inventory added 
to Canton, Dayton and Toledo counties. 

Oklahoma 

PEI 


PEI 



5-12 ■ 5.0 National Criteria Pollutant Estimation Methodologies 








National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


Table 5-2 (continued) 



Point Sources 


Area Sources 

State 

Source 

Adjustments to Point Source Data 

Source 

Adjustments to Area Source Data 

Oregon 

GCVTC 


GCVTC 


Pennsylvania 

PEI 

Allegheny and Philadelphia Counties 

Only 

PEI 

Allegheny and Philadelphia Counties Only 

Pennsylvania 

OTAG 


OTAG 

Non-road emissions submitted were county 
totals. Non-road emissions distributed to 
specific SCCs based on Int. Inventory 

Rhode Island 

OTAG 


OTAG 


South Carolina 

PEI 


NAPAP 


South Dakota 

PEI 


NAPAP 


Tennessee 

OTAG 

Average Summer Day estimated using 

OTAG 

No non-road data submitted. Non-road 



default temporal factors. 


emissions added from Int. Inventory. 

Texas 

PEI 


PEI 

NAAs Only (Houston, Beaumont, Dallas, El 
Paso) 

Utah 

NAPAP 


NAPAP 


Vermont 

PEI 


OTAG 


Virginia 

PEI 


PEI 


Washington 

PEI 


PEI 


West Virginia 

PEI 


OTAG 


Wisconsin 

PEI 


OTAG 


Wyoming 

NAPAP 


NAPAP 



NOTE(S): Year of Inventory is 1996 for PEI, 1990 for OTAG and GCVTC, and 1985 for NAPAP 


5.0 National Criteria Pollutant Estimation Methodologies ■ 5-13 









National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


Table 5-3. Utility Boiler Emissions Data Sources for NO x and S0 2 by Year 


Year 

NO x 

Csl 

O 

if) 

1985 

Overlaid Acid Rain Division (ARD) coal NO x 
rate calculations when possible 

NADBV311 data 

1986 

Overlaid ARD coal NO x rate calculations 
when possible 

Calculated from EIA-767 data 

1987 

Overlaid ARD coal NO x rate calculations 
when possible 

Calculated from EIA-767 data 

1988 

Overlaid ARD coal NO x rate calculations 
when possible 

Calculated from EIA-767 data 

1989 

Overlaid ARD coal NO x rate calculations 
when possible 

Calculated from EIA-767 data 

1990 

Overlaid ARD coal NO x rate calculations 
when possible 

Calculated from EIA-767 data 

1991 

Overlaid ARD coal NO x rate calculations 
when possible 

Calculated from EIA-767 data 

1992 

Overlaid ARD coal NO x rate calculations 
when possible 

Calculated from EIA-767 data 

1993 

Overlaid ARD coal NO x rate calculations 
when possible 

Calculated from EIA-767 data 

1994 

Overlaid ARD coal NO x rate calculations 
when possible; overlaid ETS/CEM data 
when possible 

Calculated from EIA-767 data 

1995 

Overlaid ETS/CEM data when possible 

Overlaid ETS/CEM data when possible 

1996 

Overlaid ETS/CEM data when possible 

Overlaid ETS/CEM data when possible 

1997 

Overlaid ETS/CEM data when possible 

Overlaid ETS/CEM data when possible 

1998 

Grew from 1997 data and overlaid ETS/CEM 
data when possible 

Grew from 1997 data and overlaid 

ETS/CEM data when possible 


5-14 ■ 5.0 National Criteria Pollutant Estimation Methodologies 







Figure 5-1. States Submitting Point and/or Area Source Data 

for the 1996 PEI 


National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1990-1998 



5.0 National Criteria Pollutant Estimation Methodologies ■ 5-15 


J To Be Processed FY2000 

Allegheny and Philadelphia Counties Processed 






























[This page intentionally left blank.] 


Chapter 6.0 Biogenic Emissions 


6.1 WHAT EMISSIONS DATA DOES EPA 
PRESENT IN THIS CHAPTER? 

This chapter presents preliminary biogenic volatile 
organic compound (VOC) and nitric oxide (NO) emissions for 
1988, 1990, 1991, 1995, 1996, and 1997. Estimates for 1998 
are not available because the United States (U.S.) 
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) did not have the 
resources to develop biogenic estimates for that year. The 
1998 estimates will be included in the 1999 Trends report. 
Tables 6-1 and 6-2 show VOC and NO emissions, 
respectively. Tables 2-1, A-2, and A-3 do not contain the 
biogenic emission estimates because EPA only tracks 
anthropogenic emissions for regulatory purposes. 

6.2 HOW WERE THESE EMISSIONS 
GENERATED? 

EPA calculated the biogenic emissions for 1988, 1991, 
1995,1996, and 1997 using the Biogenic Emissions Inventory 
System - Version 2 (BEIS2). 1 ' 2,3 EPA used a slightly different 
version of BEIS2 to generate the 1990 estimates. 

6.3 WHY DO THESE EMISSIONS VARY? 

Differences in climatology (i.e., temperature and cloud 
cover) and land use strongly affect biogenic emissions. 


6.4 HOW DOES TEMPERATURE AFFECT 
EMISSIONS? 

Annual emissions correlate very strongly with changes in 
annual temperature patterns. The highest emissions levels 
occur in the summer when temperatures rise the highest. An 
increase of 10°C can cause over a two-fold increase in VOC 
and NO emissions. Tables 6-3 and 6-4 show the seasonal 
allocation of VOC and NO emissions, respectively. 

6.5 HOW DOES LAND USE AFFECT 
EMISSIONS? 

Variations in land use can greatly affect spatial variation 
in biogenic emissions densities. In the southern United States 
and Missouri, large areas of oak trees show high VOC 
densities, while in the midwestern United States, areas of 
fertilized crop lands show relatively high densities of NO. 
Figures 6-1 and 6-2 show the spatial variation in biogenic 
emission densities across the United States. 

6.6 WHAT IS THE UNCERTAINTY 
ASSOCIATED WITH THESE 
ESTIMATES? 

These estimates have an uncertainty factor of a maximum 
of two. However, biogenic emissions research continues to be 
quite active, and EPA expects improvements in these emission 
estimates in the next few years. 


6.7 REFERENCES 

1. Birth, T., “User’s Guide to the PC Version of the Biogenic Emissions Inventory System (PC-BEIS2),” EPA-600/R-95-091, 
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC. 1995. 

2. Geron, C., A. Guenther, and T. Pierce, “An Improved Model for Estimating Emissions of Volatile Organic Compounds from 
Forests in the Eastern United States,” Journal of Geophysical Research , vol. 99, pp. 12773-12791. 1994. 

3. Williams, E„ A. Guenther, and F. Fehsenfeld, “An Inventory of Nitric Oxide Emissions from Soils in the United States,” 
Journal of Geophysical research, vol. 97, pp. 7511-7519. 1992. 


6.0 Biogenic Emissions ■ 6-1 





National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


Table 6-1. Biogenic Volatile Organic Compound Emissions by State 

(thousand short tons) 


State 

1988 

1990 

1991 

1995 

1996 

1997 

Alabama 

1,826 

2,114 

1,852 

1,937 

1,597 

1,579 

Arizona 

535 

542 

517 

548 

591 

545 

Arkansas 

1,837 

1,852 

1,476 

1,741 

1,472 

1,517 

California 

1,815 

1,778 

1,711 

1,794 

2,125 

1,623 

Colorado 

889 

748 

817 

826 

878 

786 

Connecticut 

81 

68 

74 

81 

63 

68 

Delaware 

25 

19 

24 

26 

20 

21 

District of Columbia 

1 

1 

1 

1 

0 

1 

Florida 

1,352 

1,513 

1,246 

1,436 

1,255 

1,307 

Georgia 

1,666 

1,958 

1,609 

1,721 

1,454 

1,405 

Idaho 

854 

810 

764 

706 

726 

726 

Illinois 

283 

227 

257 

244 

191 

187 

Indiana 

237 

185 

227 

218 

165 

157 

Iowa 

141 

95 

103 

112 

89 

93 

Kansas 

154 

140 

133 

118 

116 

119 

Kentucky 

677 

575 

648 

636 

496 

464 

Louisiana 

1,291 

1,403 

1,043 

1,367 

1,125 

1,187 

Maine 

599 

567 

621 

622 

531 

453 

Maryland 

164 

132 

155 

169 

127 

135 

Massachusetts 

140 

107 

129 

140 

109 

119 

Michigan 

581 

422 

548 

533 

394 

408 

Minnesota 

729 

519 

612 

636 

533 

502 

Mississippi 

1,662 

1,801 

1,450 

1,642 

1,402 

1,419 

Missouri 

1,472 

1,222 

1,298 

1,267 

1,056 

1,045 

Montana 

912 

729 

781 

666 

716 

680 

Nebraska 

95 

79 

81 

78 

72 

77 

Nevada 

152 

140 

142 

135 

158 

126 

New Hampshire 

168 

147 

163 

171 

137 

286 

New Jersey 

130 

115 

124 

132 

103 

107 

New Mexico 

505 

533 

499 

531 

544 

440 

New York 

350 

303 

328 

361 

280 

290 

North Carolina 

1,072 

1,194 

1,002 

1,110 

908 

882 

North Dakota 

69 

49 

51 

48 

46 

50 

Ohio 

270 

211 

243 

259 

197 

183 

Oklahoma 

1,013 

1,016 

864 

887 

836 

811 

Oregon 

1,066 

1,118 

1,002 

1,114 

1,087 

1,075 

Pennsylvania 

594 

510 

560 

642 

460 

473 

Rhode Island 

24 

18 

21 

24 

18 

20 

South Carolina 

738 

886 

652 

755 

626 

632 

South Dakota 

142 

103 

113 

104 

102 

102 

Tennessee 

1,063 

1,022 

1,010 

997 

817 

781 

Texas 

2,711 

2,864 

2,244 

2,649 

2,481 

2,431 

Utah 

407 

374 

353 

345 

410 

324 

Vermont 

102 

91 

100 

106 

88 

90 

Virginia 

911 

886 

850 

917 

728 

714 

Washington 

685 

780 

650 

801 

735 

763 

West Virginia 

510 

420 

473 

492 

383 

368 

Wisconsin 

648 

450 

516 

541 

412 

398 

Wyoming 

505 

387 

397 

358 

396 

223 

National 

33,852 

33,224 

30,536 

32,742 

29,254 

28,194 


NOTE: The sums of States may not equal National total due to rounding. 


6-2 ■ 6.0 Biogenic Emissions 








National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


Table 6-2. Biogenic Nitric Oxide Emissions by State 

(thousand short tons) 


State 

1988 

1990 

1991 

1995 

1996 

1997 

Alabama 

14 

19 

14 

14 

14 

14 

Arizona 

55 

51 

53 

55 

58 

55 

Arkansas 

19 

21 

19 

19 

18 

18 

California 

42 

40 

42 

42 

44 

41 

Colorado 

39 

35 

38 

38 

39 

35 

Connecticut 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

Delaware 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

District of Columbia 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

Florida 

22 

29 

22 

22 

22 

22 

Georgia 

19 

29 

20 

20 

19 

19 

Idaho 

25 

23 

24 

24 

24 

24 

Illinois 

90 

84 

90 

86 

81 

82 

Indiana 

49 

48 

51 

49 

46 

46 

Iowa 

93 

82 

90 

87 

81 

85 

Kansas 

91 

87 

91 

85 

83 

85 

Kentucky 

19 

20 

20 

19 

18 

18 

Louisiana 

19 

20 

19 

19 

19 

19 

Maine 

3 

3 

3 

3 

2 

2 

Maryland 

6 

6 

6 

6 

6 

6 

Massachusetts 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

Michigan 

25 

25 

26 

25 

23 

24 

Minnesota 

58 

52 

56 

54 

50 

53 

Mississippi 

19 

22 

19 

19 

19 

18 

Missouri 

44 

42 

44 

42 

40 

40 

Montana 

60 

49 

57 

53 

52 

50 

Nebraska 

91 

83 

90 

86 

80 

85 

Nevada 

46 

38 

44 

44 

47 

41 

New Hampshire 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

New Jersey 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

New Mexico 

62 

59 

61 

64 

65 

56 

New York 

17 

19 

18 

18 

17 

17 

North Carolina 

21 

26 

22 

21 

20 

20 

North Dakota 

51 

42 

48 

44 

43 

47 

Ohio 

36 

36 

37 

35 

33 

33 

Oklahoma 

35 

37 

35 

34 

34 

33 

Oregon 

24 

22 

23 

23 

23 

23 

Pennsylvania 

19 

21 

20 

20 

18 

19 

Rhode Island 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

South Carolina 

10 

16 

11 

11 

10 

10 

South Dakota 

62 

53 

60 

56 

52 

56 

Tennessee 

17 

18 

18 

17 

16 

16 

Texas 

199 

203 

199 

202 

206 

195 

Utah 

28 

25 

27 

28 

29 

23 

Vermont 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

Virginia 

10 

12 

10 

10 

9 

9 

Washington 

15 

15 

14 

15 

15 

15 

West Virginia 

4 

4 

4 

4 

3 

3 

Wisconsin 

36 

34 

35 

35 

32 

33 

Wyoming 

39 

40 

36 

35 

35 

28 

National 

1,638 

1,596 

1,628 

1,591 

1,553 

1,529 


NOTE: The sums of States may not equal National total due to rounding. 


6.0 Biogenic Emissions ■ 6-3 








National Air Pollutant Emission Trends , 1900 - 1998 


Table 6-3. Biogenic Volatile Organic 
Compound Seasonal Allocation, 
1988 to 1996 (percentages) 


Year 

Winter 

Sprinq 

Summer 

Autumn 

1988 

3 

18 

61 

18 

1990 

4 

17 

57 

22 

1991 

3 

21 

62 

14 

1995 

3 

18 

59 

19 

1996 

3 

19 

58 

20 


Table 6-4. Biogenic Nitric Oxide Seasonal 
Allocation, 1988 to 1996 
(percentages) 


Year 

Winter 

Sprinq 

Summer 

Autumn 

1988 

11 

23 

42 

24 

1990 

15 

21 

39 

25 

1991 

12 

24 

40 

23 

1995 

12 

22 

41 

24 

1996 

12 

23 

41 

24 


6-4 ■ 6.0 Biogenic Emissions 










Figure 6-1. Density Map of NITROGEN OXIDES 1997 

Biogenic Emissions by County 


National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1990-1998 



O 

A 

n 


6.0 Biogenic Emissions ■ 6-5 


















National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1990-1998 




o 

A 

□ 


6-6 ■ 6.0 Biogenic Emissions 























Chapter 7.0 Hazardous Air Pollutants 


7.1 WHAT INFORMATION IS PRESENTED 
IN THIS CHAPTER? 

This chapter discusses hazardous air pollutants (HAPs). 
HAPs are commonly referred to as “air toxics” or “toxic air 
pollutants.” They are pollutants known to cause or suspected 
of causing cancer or other serious human health effects or 
ecosystem damage. Section 112 of the Clean Air Act (CAA) 
now lists 188 pollutants or chemical groups as HAPs and 
targets stationary sources of these pollutants for regulation. 1 
Examples of air toxics include heavy metals like mercury and 
chromium; organic chemicals like benzene, 1,3-butadiene, 
perchloroethylene, dioxins, and polycyclic organic matter. 

HAPs are emitted from literally thousands of sources 
including: point sources (such as electric power utilities or 
industrial manufacturers), smaller area sources (such as 
neighborhood dry cleaners or service stations), and mobile 
sources (such as automobiles or airplanes). Adverse effects to 
human health and the environment due to HAPs can result 
from exposure to air toxics from individual facilities, exposure 
to mixtures of pollutants found in urban settings, or exposure 
to pollutants emitted from distant sources that are transported 
through the atmosphere over regional, national or even global 
airsheds. In addition to breathing air contaminated with air 
toxics, people can also be exposed to some HAPs through 
other pathways such as through the ingestion of contaminated 
food from waters polluted from the deposition of HAPs from 
the air to water bodies (e.g. fish contaminated with mercury). 

7.2 WHAT ARE THE HEALTH AND 
ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF HAPs? 

Most of the information on potential health effects of 
HAPs is derived from experimental animal data and studies of 
exposed workers. The different health effects which may be 
caused by HAPs include cancer, neurological, cardiovascular, 
and respiratory effects, effects on the liver, kidney, immune 
system, and reproductive system, and effects on fetal and child 
development. More than half of the 188 HAPs have been 
classified by the United States (U.S.) (EPA) as “known,” 
“probable,” or “possible” human carcinogens. Known human 
carcinogens are those that have been demonstrated to cause 
cancer in humans. Probable and possible human carcinogens 
include chemicals that we are less certain cause cancer in 


people, yet for which laboratory animal testing or limited 
human data indicates carcinogenic effects. 

Some HAPs pose particular hazards to people of a certain 
age or stage in life (e.g., young children, adolescents, adults, 
or elderly people). Available data suggest that about a third of 
HAPs (e.g., mercury) may be developmental or reproductive 
toxicants in humans. This means that exposure during the 
development of a fetus or young child may prevent normal 
development into a healthy adult. Other such critical 
exposures may affect the ability to conceive or give birth to a 
healthy child. Toxic air pollutants can have a variety of 
environmental impacts in addition to the threats they pose to 
human health. Animals, like humans, may experience health 
problems if they breathe sufficient concentrations of HAPs 
over time, or ingest HAPs through contaminated food (e.g. 
fish). 

7.3 WHY ARE AIR TOXICS INVENTORIES 
NEEDED? 

Section 112 of the CAA added a new approach to the 
regulation of HAPs, consisting of two phases. The first 
requires the development of technology-based emissions 
standards for sources emitting the 188 HAPs. The second 
phase requires the evaluation of any remaining problems or 
risks, and development of additional regulations to address 
sources of those problems, as needed. In implementing the 
Section 112 provisions, EPA has collected information that 
helps characterize air toxics emissions. Emission inventories 
are a key component of this characterization process and also 
provide important information with which to monitor progress 
towards meeting the emission reduction goals. 

7.3.1 Which EPA Regulatory Activities Use 
HAP Emission Inventories? 

Phase One : 

Under Section 112 of the CAA, the first phase of 
requirements is comprised of the technology-based standards, 
known as maximum achievable control technology (MACT) 
and generally achievable control technology (GACT) 
regulations. All large stationary sources, or “major” sources, 
of the 188 HAPs must be addressed by such regulations, as 
well as the smaller, “area” stationary sources found to produce 
significant risk or emit priority pollutants such as those 


Hazardous Air Pollutants ■ 7-1 





National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


identified under Section 112(c)(6) or the Integrated Urban Air 
Toxics Strategy described below. Some combustion sources, 
such as municipal waste combustors, and medical waste 
incinerators are regulated under equivalent requirements in 
Section 129. The purpose of this technology-based approach 
is to use available control technologies, changes in work 
practices, or pollution prevention methods to get emission 
reductions for as many of the HAPs as possible. It is expected 
that the MACT and GACT standards will reduce a majority of 
the HAP emissions and, in turn, reduce risks from regulated 
sources. This initial phase has generated emissions data for 
several industries as they are studied in the MACT and GACT 
regulatory development process as well as other CAA 
provisions that require EPA to evaluate emissions of utility 
industry HAP emissions, mercury, and other specific air 
toxics. These requirements are summarized below. 

Utility Study, Section 112(n)(l)(A) requires a report to 
Congress on the “hazards to public health reasonably 
anticipated to occur as a result of the emissions of electric 
utility steam generating units.” 

Mercury Study, Section 112(n)(l)(B) requires a report 
to Congress regarding emissions of mercury that “shall 
consider the rate and mass of such emissions, the health 
and environmental effects of such emissions...” 

Specific Pollutants, Section 112(c)(6) requires a “list of 
categories and subcategories of sources assuring that 
sources accounting for not less that 90 percent of the 
aggregate emissions of each pollutant are subject to 
standards.” This provision applies to seven specific 
HAPs: alkylated lead (Pb) compounds, mercury, dioxins, 
polycyclic organic matter (POM), hexachlorobenzene, 
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and furans. 

Area Source Program, Section 112(c)(3) requires that 
the “emissions of the 30 hazardous air pollutants that 
present the greatest threat to public health in the largest 
number of urban areas are subject to regulation.” 

Implementation of Section 112 through Title V of the 

CAA requires the Administrator to perform an oversight 
role with respect to State issued permits, including 
permits issued to major sources of HAP emissions. In 
order to determine whether that program is being 
appropriately and lawfully administrated by the States 
with respect to major HAP sources, a HAP emission 
inventory is necessary. States are developing programs to 
regulate HAPs and their Title V programs must include 
permits for all HAP sources emitting major quantities of 
HAPs (10 tons of one HAP or 25 tons of multiple HAPs 
per year). Thus the Administrator believes maintaining an 
inventory of such sources is necessary and appropriate. 


Phase Two: 

After application of these technology-based standards and 
studies, in the second phase, the CAA requires strategies and 
programs for evaluating remaining risks and effects and 
ensuring that the overall program has achieved sufficient 
improvement. This phase will be implemented through 
programs that evaluate these remaining risk and effects. Such 
programs are described below. 

Integrated Urban Air Toxics Strategy responds to the 
requirements of Sections 112(k) and 112(c)(3) of the 
CAA, and also reflects activities to control mobile source 
emissions required under section 202(1). The goals of the 
Integrated Urban Air Toxics Strategy consist of the 
following: 1) attain a 75-percent reduction in incidence of 
cancer attributable to exposure to HAPs emitted by 
stationary sources; 2) attain a substantial reduction in 
public health risks posed by HAP emissions from area 
sources; and 3) address disproportionate impacts of air 
toxics hazards across urban areas. The Integrated Urban 
Air Toxics Strategy was finalized in July 19, 1999 
Federal Register. 2 

Residual Risk, Section 112(f ) requires an assessment of 
the residual risk after certain Section 112 standards are 
implemented. Residual risk standards are to be developed 
as determined necessary eight years after promulgation of 
these standards. 

The Great Waters Program, Section 112(m) requires 
EPA to identify “the extent of atmospheric deposition of 
hazardous air pollutants” to specified water bodies, 
“evaluate any adverse effects to pubic health or the 
environment caused by such deposition,” and determine 
whether additional regulations are warranted. 

Inventories play a crucial role in each of these programs 
as the inventory information is used to evaluate current 
emissions, emissions reductions achieved, and identify the 
numerous source categories which emit specific pollutants. 
Inventories are an important tool in evaluating the risk 
reductions goals for the Integrated Urban Air Toxics Strategy. 
In addition, EPA is also using information from inventories to 
plan what future work might need to be done. For more 
information on Section 112 programs refer to the EPA’s 
website at http://www.epa.gov/ttn/uatw.html. 

7.4 WHAT IS EPA’S PLAN TO GATHER 
THE NECESSARY TOXICS DATA? 

As the EPA began working to meet the air toxics 
requirements of the CAA, it became clear that there was a 
strong need for a central source of air toxics emissions and 
inventory data from which to conduct the analyses required by 
the CAA, and to have a place to centrally store and share the 


7-2 ■ Hazardous Air Pollutants 





National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


data being generated through various programs. The increased 
availability of air toxics emissions data will assist EPA 
program offices and other agencies that use emissions data to 
evaluate state, local, or tribal air pollution related issues. Air 
toxics data needs vary from national estimates of emissions to 
regional estimates, county-level estimates, and facility-specific 
estimates, and even down to process-specific estimates. Thus, 
in 1993, EPA began development of a national air toxics 
inventory data base now referred to as the National Toxics 
Inventory (NTI). 

7.5 WHAT IS THE NTI? 

The NTI is a central repository of estimated emissions for 
the 188 HAPs for all anthropogenic (manmade) sources. 

7.5.1 How was the NTI Developed? 

The national estimates of the HAPs included in the NTI 
to date were calculated using existing information; no source 
testing or industry surveys were conducted specifically for the 
purposes of generating the NTI. Existing emission inventory 
data were obtained from a variety of state and local data bases 
and EPA programs (such as the Toxics Release Inventory 
(TRI), standards development programs, and other studies 
required by the CAA such as the Utility Study). Sometimes 
emissions information is available from direct measurement of 
emissions at a given source. However, for logistical and 
financial reasons direct measurement, or stack testing, cannot 
be performed at every source and instead, most inventory data 
are developed via various estimation techniques. 

Many of the national emissions estimates in the NTI 
(primarily for area and mobile sources) were developed by 
applying an emission factor, which is an emissions estimate 
based on test data and correlated to some other process 
activity. For example an emissions factor could be expressed 
in terms of grams emitted per ton of coal burned or per vehicle 
mile traveled. To estimate emissions, these factors were 
combined with information about the activity levels of a 
source, such as the production levels at the facility, the number 
of hours of operation, or the amount of fuel consumed. 

Because there are multiple programs investigating HAP 
emissions in the United States, emissions data and source 
activity data are continually changing and improving. Since 
estimating emissions requires making various assumptions, the 
estimates are applicable for a specific time period and may not 
necessarily agree with other published estimates due to 
differences in base years, emission factors and activity data, 
and calculation assumptions. It should be recognized that 
some of the data presented in the NTI for a given base year is 
likely to change as more information and improved estimation 
approaches are developed. 

EPA established a hierarchy of emissions estimation 
methods in order to prepare the inventory. The hierarchy is 
used to sort through overlapping data sources of varying 


quality or reliability. EPA prefers to use existing inventories 
that are final, and whose estimates are judged to be acceptable. 

The hierarchy is (with data sources listed by preference): 

1. Data developed by State and local air agencies; 

2. Data from EPA’s Emissions Standards Division, 
collected and developed for standards development; 

3. Data from existing EPA inventories, such as those 
developed to support requirements of CAA Sections 
112(k) 4 and 112(c)(6); 5 and 

4. Emissions reported in the TRI data base, 6 and 
emissions that EPA generated using emission factors 
and activity factors. 

If emissions data were not available for certain source 
categories through these references (1-4 above), emissions 
factors and activity data were used to estimate emissions. 
Emission factors used were evaluated for their currency, 
completeness, representativeness, and overall quality. The 
emission factors generally came from EPA’s AP-42 
document, 7 EPA’s Locating and Estimating Document Series, 8 
or the Factor Information Retrieval (FIRE) system. 9 Most of 
the activity data were obtained from sources such as the 
Energy Information Administration (fuel consumption 
reports), the Forest Service (fires and burned acreage), and 
other EPA offices (waste disposal reports). Industry trade 
publications, commercially published business directories, and 
journals were also sources of activity data. 

The EPA’s Office of Transportation and Air Quality 
(OTAQ) assisted in the development of the mobile source 
emissions estimates. Mobile sources include “on-road” 
vehicles, such as cars, trucks, and motorcycles, as well as 
“nonroad” vehicles and equipment, such as airplanes, boats, 
or lawnmowers. For many of the HAPs emitted from mobile 
sources, details on the emission estimation procedures are 
provided in the Section 112(k) inventory report. 3 

7.5.2 What are the NTI Base Years? 

The Baseline NTI (1990 - 1993) 

The first iteration of the NTI, referred to as the Baseline 
NTI, provides a composite of emissions estimates 
intended to represent the 1990 to 1993 time frame. Much 
of the baseline NTI data are for 1990, because a large 
portion of the national emissions data in the NTI was 
developed under the Section 112(c)(6) and Section 112(k) 
programs which targeted a 1990 base year. The TRI data 
and state and local data included for California, Houston, 
and Phoenix are for a 1993 base year. Emissions for the 
MACT source category portion of the NTI are annual 
emissions ranging from 1990 to 1993, and represent 


Hazardous Air Pollutants ■ 7-3 




National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


emissions from these sources before MACT standards 
were implemented. The estimates in the Baseline 
inventory are aggregated to the county level and cover the 
50 United States. The emissions summaries and graphics 
provided in this report are based exclusively on the 
Baseline NTI. 

The 1996 NTI 

EPA has recently completed the 1996 NTI. The 1996 
version differs significantly from the Baseline NTI. 
Unlike the Baseline NTI which has emissions estimates 
from all counties by source category and pollutant, the 
1996 NTI contains facility- and location-specific 
information making it suitable for input to computer air 
quality models (computer models used to for dispersion 
calculations which predict resultant ambient air 
concentrations). Methods for mobile source emissions 
estimates were significantly improved in the 1996 NTI 
also. The 1996 NTI data set contains estimates for all 50 
United States and for Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. 
It has been compiled in cooperation with State and local 
agencies which have submitted data they have gathered 
during facility permitting and other regulatory activities. 
The 1996 NTI contains data and/or comments supplied by 
46 States, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands. Figure 7-1 
highlights the state and local agencies that contributed 
data to the 1996 NTI. Subsequent base year NTIs will 
contain this same level of model-ready detail and will be 
compiled every 3 years (1999, 2002, etc.). 

The 1996 NTI was completed in January 2000, but the 
results could not be summarized for comparison to Baseline 
NTI emissions in time to be printed in this document. Thus, 
because only one data set is summarized here, this report does 
not show an emissions trend over time. Instead, it provides the 
baseline from which trends can be measured in future reports. 

7.5.3 How are Emissions Allocated to Source 
Types and Counties? 

For purposes of the Baseline NTI, the emission estimates 
were further refined in two ways. First, the emissions were 
allocated by source type including major sources, area sources 
and mobile sources. Then the emissions were spatially 
allocated. The sections below describe these analyses. 

Major/Area Source Allocation 

The national emission estimates for stationary source 
categories were allocated according to whether the emitting 
source category was classified as “major,” “area,” or could be 
classified partially as both. According to Title I, 
Section 112(a) of the C AA, a “major source” is any stationary 
source (including all emission points and units located within 
a contiguous area and under common control) of air pollution 


that has the potential to emit, considering controls, 10 tons or 
more per year of any HAP or 25 tons or more per year of any 
combination of HAPs. An “area source” is any stationary 
source of HAPs that does not qualify as a major source. Major 
sources may include co-located sources which can have 
components that emit less that 10 tons per year of an 
individual HAP or 25 tons or more per year of any 
combination of HAP. 

Spatial Allocation 

Emissions were assigned to counties by a number of 
methods. In some cases, where actual locations were not 
known, emissions were assigned to individual counties using 
surrogate approaches. Some examples of surrogate 
approaches include proportioning national emissions to 
counties based on population, proportioning emissions from 
some industrial sectors to counties based on 1990 Standard 
Industrial Classification (SIC) code employment estimates, 
and assigning emissions from forest fires to counties based on 
forested acres. 

7.5.4 What are Urban/Rural Allocations? 

The emission estimates were also spatially allocated on an 
urban and rural basis in order to meet some of the 
requirements of the Integrated Urban Air Toxics Strategy. To 
do this, U.S. Census Bureau statistical data were used. 9 The 
Census Bureau has designated the portion of every county in 
the United States that is considered urban. The criteria used 
include population density and total population. Using 
population data and urban designations, every county in the 
United States was classified as one of the following 
categories: 

• Urban-1 (U1) counties are included in a metropolitan 
statistical area with a population greater than 
250,000; 

• Urban-2 (U2) counties in which the Census Bureau 
designates more than 50 percent of the county 
population as urban; and 

• Rural (R) counties in which the Census Bureau 
designates less than 50 percent of the county 
population as urban. 

In the summary of 1993 NTI emissions and graphics that 
follow, “urban” has been designated to be the sum of U1 plus 
U2 counties. Figure 7-2 identifies the urban/rural counties in 
the 50 United States using the Integrated Urban Air Toxics 
Strategy definition described above. Note that these urban/ 
rural designations have been derived exclusively for inventory 
purposes and do not indicate regulatory applicability. 


7-4 ■ Hazardous Air Pollutants 






National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


7.5.5 What Changes Have Been Made Since 
the Last Trends Report? 

Emission inventories are dynamic, with enhancements 
being made on an ongoing basis. Many revisions were made 
in the Baseline NTI since what was reported in the last Trends 
document. Public review of the compilation of the Section 
112(k) Urban Air Toxics inventory and new information that 
became available through the MACT/GACT program led to 
most of these changes. Some errors in the earlier data base 
were also corrected. These changes led to a significant 
decrease in the estimates of emissions from stationary sources. 

7.6 HOW ARE THE EMISSIONS 
SUMMARIZED? 

The emissions summarized in the following pages 
represents the most recent version of the Baseline NTI. (This 
version is the “9901” version of the inventory and, as stated 
previously, represents a composite of emissions estimates from 
the 1990 to 1993 time period.) Because of the volume of data, 
much of the emissions information shown here involves the 
summary of emissions across pollutants. This cross-pollutant 
summary is done primarily for the sake of comparison to show 
the mass of all HAP emissions across source sectors (major, 
area, mobile), tier groups (industry sectors), populations 
centers (urban and rural), and geographic regions (national and 
state). 

Any evaluation of exposure or resultant risk posed by 
these emissions would depend on the presence, exposure, 
and toxicity of individual pollutants, and cannot be 
surmised from the data provided here. 

The sum of Baseline NTI emissions from all sources and 
from the 50 United States is 5.9 million tons. This version 
(9901) of the NTI includes emission estimates for 169 of the 
188 individual and group (e.g., metal compound groups) 
HAPs. A list of the HAPs included is presented in Table 7-1. 
Approximately 580,000 tons of HAP emissions that could not 
be speciated into individual chemical species. These 
“unspeciated HAP” emissions come primarily from the 
synthetic organic chemicals industry MACT data. These 
emissions are primarily volatile organic compounds. A small 
subset (approximately 64 tons) of these emissions are metals 
and other particulate matter. It should be noted that this will 
Pb to the undercounting of individual HAP species from these 
sources, for example, benzene emissions. The Baseline NTI 
includes estimates for approximately 960 source categories. 

7.6.1 What Individual Pollutant Detail is 
Given? 

As part of the Integrated Urban Air Toxics Strategy, EPA 
identified a list of the 33 air toxics that present the greatest 
threat to public health in the largest number of urban areas (see 


Table 7-2 for list of urban air toxics). In identifying the list of 
“urban air toxics” pollutants EPA looked at pollutants 
regardless of the source sector (major, area, or mobile), from 
which they were emitted. Thus, EPA looked at pollutants that 
pose a health threat in urban areas in the aggregate, from 
stationary area, stationary major and mobile sources. 
However, the CAA requires that EPA identify at least 30 
HAPs that “result from area sources.” Thus, of these 33 urban 
air toxics, EPA identified the 30 with the greatest contribution 
from smaller commercial and industrial operations or so-called 
“area” sources. These 30 are important for establishing a list 
of area source categories for regulation as required by section 
112(k). However, in addition to the requirement to list area 
source categories, the Integrated Urban Air Toxics Strategy 
contains the three risk reduction goals discussed earlier. It is 
important to remember that in looking at the risk reduction 
goals the Integrated Urban Air Toxics Strategy states EPA will 
look at the risk from all 188 HAPs, not just that associated 
with the 33 urban air toxics. The 33 urban air toxics represent 
those pollutants that are a priority on a national scale. 
However, on the local scale other HAPs may be play a more 
important role in local health risks. The emissions data that 
follows highlights the emissions of these 33 priority HAPs in 
comparison to all of the 188 HAPs. For additional background 
information on the Integrated Urban Air Toxics Strategy, visit 
EPA’s website at 

http://www.epa.gov/ttn/uatw/urban/urbanpg.html. 

As explained previously, because the Integrated Urban 
Air Toxics Strategy is designed to focus on emissions from 
urban areas, all emissions in the NTI are flagged accordingly 
to indicate whether the county from which the emissions come 
meets the urban definition. Figures 7-3 through Figure 7-5 
indicate the percentages of national emissions totals that are 
from rural and urban counties and attributable to the major, 
area, on-road, and nonroad source sectors. Figures 7-6 and 7-7 
show the summed emissions of the 188 HAPs and 33 HAPs, 
respectively, by state and source sector. Figures 7-8 and 7-9 
present a map graphic portraying the percentiles of the 
summed emissions densities in tons per square mile. Figure 
7-10 shows national emissions percentage of each of the 33 
HAPs divided among source sectors (major, area, on-road, 
nonroad). 

The Baseline NTI emissions are further summarized in 
several ways. Table 7-3 includes all 188 HAPs summed by 
total, urban, and rural allocations and by point, area, and 
mobile (on-road and nonroad) contributions. Table 7-4 repeats 
this information with more detail about how the point, area, 
and mobile sectors exist in urban and rural counties. Tables 
7-5 and 7-6 indicate the summed 188 and 33 HAPs, 
respectively, by State and point, area, on-road, and nonroad 
emissions. Tables 7-7 and 7-8 summarize the 33 HAPs by 
source tier groups. Tiering is a method of broadly categorizing 
industry sectors. Tier 1 provides the most general 
classification (e.g., fuel combustion) with Tier 2 supplying 
more detail (e.g., fuel combustion by coal, oil, gas, and other 


Hazardous Air Pollutants ■ 7-5 




National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


fuel types). Although currently criteria pollutant xind HAP 
emission inventories are compiled separately, and therefore the 
Tier groups could not be matched exactly, every effort has 
been made to match Tier groups as much as possible. Table 7- 
7 indicates Tier 1 groups and Table 7-8, Tier 1 along with 
Tier 2. 

Within the Tier 2 groupings, emissions in the NTI are 
flagged according to whether they come from source 
categories being reviewed for MACT/G ACT regulations. The 
MACT source emissions that are flagged in the Baseline NTI 
data set reflect source categories for which EPA has developed 
emissions estimates as part of ongoing regulatory develop¬ 
ment. Although utility emissions have a “MACT flag,” no 


determination has been made as yet regarding whether these 
sources will be subject to MACT standards. Combustion 
sources being reviewed under section 129 are also flagged. 
The source categories and pollutants that are MACT flagged 
indicate those considered in the Integrated Urban Strategy 
analyses (used to determine the list of priority HAPs) prior to 
publication of the Strategy. That analysis resulted in an 
additional listing of source categories, published in the 
July 19, 1999 Federal Registerr These newly listed source 
categories do not yet have MACT flags in the NTI; once 
standards have been initiated to the point that emissions 
covered by new standards can be identified, the inventory will 
reflect them. 


7.7 REFERENCES 

1. This list originally included 189 chemicals. The CAA allows EPA to modify this list if new scientific information 
becomes available that indicates a change should be made. Using this authority, the Agency modified the list to remove 
caprolactam in 1996, reducing the list to 188 pollutants (Hazardous Air Pollutant List; Modification, 61 FR 30816, 

June 18, 1996). 

2. “National Air Toxics Program: The Integrated Urban Strategy;” Notice, Federal Register 64:38705, U.S. Environmental 
Protection Agency. July 19, 1999. 

3. “EPA Strategic Plan,” EPA-190/R-97-002, Office of the Chief Financial Officer, U.S. Environmental Protection 
Agency, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC. 1997. 

4. “1990 Emissions Inventory of Forty Potential Section 112(k) Pollutants,” Supporting Data for EPA’s Section 112(k) 
Regulatory Strategy, Final Report, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, U.S. Environmental Protection 
Agency. Research Triangle Park, NC. 1999. 

5. “1990 Emissions Inventory of Section 112(c)(6) Pollutants: Polycyclic Organic Matter (POM), 2,3,7,8- 
Tetrachlorodibenzo-P-Dioxin (TCDD)/2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzofuran (TCDF), Polychlorinated Biphenyl Compounds 
(PCBs), Hexachlorobenzene, Mercury, and Alkylated Lead,” Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, U.S. 
Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC. 1999. 

6. “Toxics Release Inventory 1987-1995 CD ROM,” EPA 749-C-96-003, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research 
Triangle Park, NC. 1996a. 

7. “Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors, Fifth Edition and Supplements,” AP-42, Volume I: Stationary Point and 
Area Sources, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC. 1996. 

8. “Air Chief Compact Disc,” Version 7, EPA 454/C-99-004, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle 
Park, NC. November 1999. 

9. “Factor Information Retrieval (FIRE) System Database,” Version 5.1a, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research 
Triangle Park, NC. 1995. 

10. “1990 Summary Tape File 1A, 1990 Decennial Census of Population and Housing,” U.S. Census Bureau, Washington, 
DC. 1990. 


7-6 ■ Hazardous Air Pollutants 





National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 -1998 

Table 7-1. Hazardous Air Pollutants Included in the Baseline NTI (version 9901) 

1,1,2,2-Tetrachloroethane 


1.1.2- Trichloroethane 

1,1 -Dimethylhydrazine 

1.2.4- Trichlorobenzene 

1.2- Dibromo-3-chloropropane 

1.2- Epoxybutane 

1.2- Propylenimine (2-Methylaziridine) 

1.3- Butadiene 

1.3- Dichloropropene 

1.3- Propane sultone 

1.4- Dichlorobenzene 

1.4- Dioxane (1,4-Diethyleneoxide) 

2.2.4- Trimethylpentane 
2,3,7,8-TCDD TEQ 

2.4.5- Trichlorophenol 

2.4.6- Trichlorophenol 

2.4- D (2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic Acid)(including salts 
and esters) 

2.4- Dinitrophenol 

2.4- Dinitrotoluene 

2.4- Toluene diisocyanate 
2-Chloroacetophenone 
2-Nitropropane 
3,3'-Dichlorobenzidene 
3,3'-Dimethoxybenzidine 
3,3'-Dimethylbenzidine 
4,4'-Methylenebis(2-chloroaniline) 
4,4'-Methylenedianiline 
4,4'-Methylenediphenyl diisocyanate (MDI) 

4.6- Dinitro-o-cresol (including salts) 

4-Aminobiphenyl 

4-Dimethylaminoazobenzene 

4-Nitrobiphenyl 

4-Nitrophenol 

Acetaldehyde 

Acetamide 

Acetonitrile 

Acetophenone 

Acrolein 


Acrylamide 
Acrylic acid 
Acrylonitrile 
Allyl chloride 
Aniline 

Antimony Compounds 

Arsenic Compounds(inorganic including arsine) 
Asbestos 

Benzene (including benzene from gasoline) 

Benzidine 

Benzotrichloride 

Benzyl chloride 

Beryllium Compounds 

Biphenyl 

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) 
Bis(chloromethyl) ether 
Bromoform 

Cadmium Compounds 

Calcium cyanamide 

Captan 

Carbaryl 

Carbon disulfide 

Carbon tetrachloride 

Carbonyl sulfide 

Catechol 

Chlordane 

Chlorine 

Chloroacetic acid 
Chlorobenzene 
Chlorobenzilate 
Chloroform 

Chloromethyl methyl ether 

Chloroprene 

Chromium Compounds 

Cobalt Compounds 

Coke Oven Emissions 

Cresol/Cresylic acid (mixed isomers) 

Cumene 


Hazardous Air Pollutants ■ 7-7 








National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


Table 7-1 (continued) 


Cyanide Compounds 
Dibutyl phthalate 

Dichloroethyl ether (Bis[2-chloroethyl]ether) 

Dichlorvos 

Diethanolamine 

Diethyl sulfate 

Dimethyl phthalate 

Dimethyl sulfate 

Epichlorohydrin (l-Chloro-2,3-epoxypropane) 

Ethyl Chloride 
Ethyl acrylate 

Ethyl carbamate (Urethane) chloride (Chloroethane) 
Ethylbenzene 

Ethylene dibromide (Dibromoethane) 

Ethylene dichloride (1,2-Dichloroethane) 

Ethylene glycol 
Ethylene oxide 
Ethylene thiourea 

Ethylidene dichloride (1,1 -Dichloroethane) 

Fine mineral fibers 

Formaldehyde 

Glycol ethers 

Heptachlor 

Hexachlorobenzene 

Hexachlorobutadiene 

Hexachlorocyclopentadiene 

Hexachloroethane 

Hexamethylene diisocyanate 

Hexane 

Hydrazine 

Hydrochloric acid (Hydrogen chloride [gas only]) 
Hydrogen fluoride (Hydrofluoric acid) 

Hydroquinone 
Isophorone 
Lead Compounds 
Maleic anhydride 
Manganese Compounds 
Mercury Compounds 


Methoxychlor 

Methyl bromide (Bromomethane) 

Methyl chloride (Chloromethane) 

Methyl chloroform (1,1,1 -Trichloroethane) 
Methyl ethyl ketone (2-Butanone) 

Methyl iodide (lodomethane) 

Methyl isobutyl ketone (Hexone) 

Methyl isocyanate 

Methyl methacrylate 

Methyl tert-butyl ether 

Methylene chloride (Dichloromethane) 

Methylhydrazine 

N,N-Dimethylaniline 

N,N-Dimethylformamide 

N-Nitrosodimethylamine 

N-Nitrosomorpholine 

Nickel Compounds 

Nitrobenzene 

Parathion 

Pentachloronitrobenzene (Quintobenzene) 

Pentachlorophenol 

Phenol 

Phosgene 

Phosphine 

Phosphorus Compounds 
Phthalic anhydride 
Polychlorinated biphenyls (Aroclors) 
Polycyclic Organic Matter 
Propionaldehyde 
Propoxur (Baygon) 

Propylene dichloride (1,2-Dichloropropane) 

Propylene oxide 

Quinoline 

Quinone (p-Benzoquinone) 

Radionuclides (including radon) 

Selenium Compounds 

Styrene 

Styrene oxide 


7-8 ■ Hazardous Air Pollutants 









National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


Table 7-1 (continued) 


Methanol 

Tetrachloroethylene (Perchloroethylene) 

Titanium tetrachloride 

Vinyl acetate 

Toluene 

Vinyl bromide 

Total Unspeciated HAPS 

Vinyl chloride 

Total Unspeciated METALS 

Vinylidene chloride (1,1-Dichloroethylene) 

Trichloroethylene 

Xylenes (mixed isomers) 

Triethylamine 

o-Anisidine 

Trifluralin 

o-Toluidine 

Unspeciated Particulate HAPs, Chromium and Cobalt 

p-Phenylenediamine 


Hazardous Air Pollutants ■ 7-9 







National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


Table 7-2. List of Urban HAPS for the Integrated Urban Air Toxics Strategy 

(“Urban HAPS List”) 


HAP 

CAS No. + 

HAP 

CAS No. + 

acetaldehyde 

75070 

formaldehyde 

50000 

acrolein 

107028 

hexachlorobenzene 

118741 

acrylonitrile 

107131 

hydrazine 

302012 

arsenic compounds 


lead compounds 


benzene 

71432 

manganese compounds 


beryllium compounds 


mercury compounds 


1,3-butadiene 

106990 

methylene chloride (dichloromethane) 

75092 

cadmium compounds 


nickel compounds 


carbon tetrachloride 

56235 

polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) 

1336363 

chloroform 

67663 

polycyclic organic matter (POM) 


chromium compounds 


quinoline 

91225 

coke oven emissions 

8007452 

2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (& 
congeners & TCDF congeners) 

1746016 

1,2-dibromoethane 

106934 

1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane 

79345 

1,2-dichloropropane (propylene dichloride) 

78875 

tetrachloroethylene (perchloroethylene) 

127F84 

1,3-dichloropropene 

542756 

trichloroethylene 

79016 

ethylene dichloride 
(1,2-dichloroethane) 

107062 

vinyl chloride 

75014 

ethylene oxide 

75218 




+ Chemical Abstracts System number. 


7-10 ■ Hazardous Air Pollutants 


























National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 -1998 


Table 7-3. Baseline NTI Emissions for Urban, Rural, and 
Major Source Categories by HAP 


188 HAP Name 

Total National 
Emissions 
(tpy) 

Total URBAN 

Total RURAL 

Total Point 

Total Area 

Mobile: 

Onroad 

Mobile: 

Nonroad 

1,1,2,2-Tetrachloroethane 

248.56834 

209.64691 

38.92143 

50.21984 

198.34850 

0.00000 

0.00000 

1,1,2-Trichloroethane 

761.36164 

511.34897 

250.01267 

754.41778 

6.94386 

0.00000 

0.00000 

1,1 -Dimethylhydrazine 

0.58484 

0.57639 

0.00845 

0.58313 

0.00170 

0.00000 

0.00000 

1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene 

5,865.94500 

3,072.21190 

2,793.73310 

5,849.83966 

16.10534 

0.00000 

0.00000 

1,2-Dibromo-3-chloropropane 

14.93700 

11.17880 

3.75820 

14.78763 

0.14937 

0.00000 

0.00000 

1,2-Epoxybutane 

38.05489 

37.15589 

0.89900 

36.61370 

1.44120 

0.00000 

0.00000 

1,2-Propylenimine (2-Methylaziridine) 

0.41950 

0.40444 

0.01506 

0.41043 

0.00907 

0.00000 

0.00000 

1,3-Butadiene 

71,523.56768 

42,590.06162 

28,933.50606 

3,937.92968 

20,040.53479 

36,657.97824 

10,887.12496 

1,3-Dichloropropene 

19,927.87000 

16,652.12824 

3,275.74176 

30.48629 

19,897.38371 

0.00000 

0.00000 

1,3-Propane sultone 

0.00072 

0.00072 

0.00000 

0.00072 

0.00000 

0.00000 

0.00000 

1,4-Dichlorobenzene 

5,225.64801 

4,228.57842 

997.06959 

750.16231 

4,475.48569 

0.00000 

0.00000 

1,4-Dioxane (1,4-Diethyleneoxide) 

855.24718 

716.54579 

138.70139 

832.48441 

22.76276 

0.00000 

0.00000 

2,2,4-Trimethylpentane 

29,627.36202 

25,490.36625 

4,136.99577 

23,821.53979 

5,803.52238 

1.81653 

0.48333 

2,3,7,8-TCDDTEQ 

0.00264 

0.00221 

0.00043 

0.00170 

0.00084 

0.00009 

0.00000 

2,4,5-Trichlorophenol 

0.52300 

0.39141 

0.13159 

0.51777 

0.00523 

0.00000 

0.00000 

2,4,6-Trichlorophenol 

0.59785 

0.46601 

0.13184 

0.59017 

0.00768 

0.00000 

0.00000 

2,4-D (2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic 

Acid)(including salts and esters) 

7,681.23909 

2,503.84525 

5,177.39385 

0.64196 

7,680.59714 

0.00000 

0.00000 

2,4-Dinitrophenol 

7.74550 

7.08346 

0.66204 

7.72507 

0.02044 

0.00000 

0.00000 

2,4-Dinitrotoluene 

3.50850 

2.88957 

0.61893 

0.59401 

2.91450 

0.00000 

0.00000 

2,4-Toluene diisocyanate 

67.40469 

54.59477 

12.80992 

64.68525 

2.71945 

0.00000 

0.00000 

2-Chloroacetophenone 

0.02800 

0.02096 

0.00704 

0.02772 

0.00028 

0.00000 

0.00000 

2-Nitropropane 

55.46246 

52.15140 

3.31106 

54.21458 

1.24787 

0.00000 

0.00000 

3,3'-Dichlorobenzidene 

0.51705 

0.38807 

0.12897 

0.51189 

0.00515 

0.00000 

0.00000 

3,3'-Dimethoxybenzidine 

0.87700 

0.65634 

0.22066 

0.86823 

0.00877 

0.00000 

0.00000 

3,3'-Dimethylbenzidine 

0.31600 

0.23649 

0.07951 

0.31284 

0.00316 

0.00000 

0.00000 

4,4'-Methylenebis(2-chloroaniline) 

0.92945 

0.61097 

0.31848 

0.91624 

0.01321 

0.00000 

0.00000 

4,4'-Methylenedianiline 

3.97348 

3.61660 

0.35689 

3.83849 

0.13500 

0.00000 

0.00000 

4,4'-Methylenediphenyl diisocyanate (MDI) 

244.24576 

117.53081 

126.71495 

195.79506 

48.45070 

0.00000 

0.00000 

4,6-Dinitro-o-cresol (including salts) 

0.58850 

0.44471 

0.14379 

0.58262 

0.00588 

0.00000 

0.00000 

4-Aminobiphenyl 

0.18200 

0.13621 

0.04579 

0.18018 

0.00182 

0.00000 

0.00000 

4-Dimethylaminoazobenzene 

0.30800 

0.23051 

0.07749 

0.30492 

0.00308 

0.00000 

0.00000 

4-Nitrobiphenyl 

0.37300 

0.27915 

0.09385 

0.36927 

0.00373 

0.00000 

0.00000 

4-Nitrophenol 

1.54100 

1.17946 

0.36154 

1.52561 

0.01539 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Acetaldehyde 

137,166.15337 

78,064.33352 

59,101.81986 

21,337.93570 

50,533.50105 

27,963.87210 

37,330.84452 

Acetamide 

0.02806 

0.02425 

0.00381 

0.01080 

0.01726 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Acetonitrile 

1,450.60505 

1,241.98190 

208.62315 

1,393.62584 

56.97922 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Acetophenone 

291.09852 

229.79161 

61.30691 

284.07511 

7.02341 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Acrolein 

62,660.26492 

28,916.89707 

33,743.36785 

757.25478 

49,632.35798 

5,541.61622 

6,729.03594 

Acrylamide 

35.44595 

33.50764 

1.93831 

34.59024 

0.85571 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Acrylic acid 

537.18231 

497.56824 

39.61407 

523.19176 

13.99055 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Acrylonitrile 

2,543.60095 

2,240.67795 

302.92301 

2,072.52780 

471.07315 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Allyl chloride 

111.88139 

100.70670 

11.17469 

109.10577 

2.77563 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Aniline 

477.45592 

397.74288 

79.71305 

463.54493 

13.91100 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Antimony Compounds 

103.37891 

79.04959 

24.32932 

96.76993 

6.60794 

0.00092 

0.00012 

Arsenic Compounds(inorganic including arsine) 

288.43199 

203.83865 

84.59334 

230.28133 

55.36306 

1.74759 

1.04001 

Asbestos 

8.50164 

6.49092 

2.01072 

7.22413 

1.27752 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Benzene (including benzene from gasoline) 

389,347.91615 

258,044.08078 

131,303.83537 

36,440.67051 

73,236.15328 

207,259.79811 

72,411.29424 

Benzidine 

0.40000 

0.30137 

0.09863 

0.39578 

0.00422 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Benzotrichloride 

10.23650 

7.92716 

2.30934 

10.02818 

0.20832 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Benzyl chloride 

33.55681 

28.15413 

5.40268 

31.98701 

1.56979 

0.00000 

0.00000 


Hazardous Air Pollutants ■ 7-11 







National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 -1998 


Table 7-3 (continued) 


188 HAP Name 

Total National 
Emissions 

(tpy) 

Total URBAN 

Total RURAL 

Total Point 

Total Area 

Mobile: 

Onroad 

Mobile: 

Nonroad 

Beryllium Compounds 

12.39344 

8.52101 

3.87243 

9.75393 

2.61950 

0.00000 

0.02000 

Biphenyl 

863.26496 

557.22057 

306.04439 

832.45108 

30.79378 

0.01470 

0.00539 

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) 

859.69315 

634.86878 

224.82437 

814.37464 

45.31851 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Bis(chloromethyl) ether 

0.43589 

0.40250 

0.03339 

0.42541 

0.01048 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Bromoform 

8.47200 

6.34042 

2.13158 

8.38728 

0.08472 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Cadmium Compounds 

199.12086 

161.96437 

37.15649 

158.93650 

39.87356 

0.00068 

0.31011 

Calcium cyanamide 

6.31000 

6.31000 

0.00000 

3.55821 

2.75179 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Captan 

2.16500 

1.88151 

0.28349 

2.14356 

0.02144 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Carbaryl 

1.91825 

0.80109 

1.11716 

0.01337 

1.90489 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Carbon disulfide 

130,279.58604 

73,572.05191 

56,707.53414 

129,372.03640 

907.54965 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Carbon tetrachloride 

5,040.51156 

2,948.70650 

2,091.80506 

4,941.43259 

99.07897 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Carbonyl sulfide 

12,244.95793 

10,303.97508 

1,940.98285 

10,028.32515 

2,216.63278 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Catechol 

12.72200 

12.72108 

0.00092 

10.39509 

2.32692 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Chlordane 

0.05100 

0.04766 

0.00334 

0.04894 

0.00206 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Chlorine 

77,392.29466 

71,653.78964 

5,738.50501 

74,484.06927 

2,908.11374 

0.08699 

0.02465 

Chloroacetic acid 

40.85950 

31.16850 

9.69100 

39.51657 

1.34293 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Chlorobenzene 

11,900.28694 

8,919.49726 

2,980.78968 

2,827.48748 

9,072.79946 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Chlorobenzilate 

2.01430 

2.01430 

0.00000 

2.01430 

0.00000 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Chloroform 

22,735.28325 

13,243.25231 

9,492.03094 

22,158.72255 

576.56070 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Chloromethyl methyl ether 

6.18450 

5.73760 

0.44690 

6.02049 

0.16401 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Chloroprene 

1,050.82941 

1,014.07621 

36.75320 

1,039.40976 

11.41966 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Chromium Compounds 

897.15022 

727.40183 

169.74840 

573.79284 

269.62666 

27.93068 

25.80005 

Cobalt Compounds 

65.69997 

50.39620 

15.30377 

60.20699 

5.49278 

0.00017 

0.00003 

Coke Oven Emissions 

1,763.69000 

1,702.87310 

60.81690 

1,763.69000 

0.00000 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Cresol/Cresylic acid (mixed isomers) 

11,327.03156 

6,194.55986 

5,132.47171 

11,316.14891 

10.88266 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Cumene 

11,418.27801 

7,232.35156 

4,185.92645 

11,260.55879 

157.71921 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Cyanide Compounds 

2,405.32835 

2,279.03686 

126.29149 

1,318.00259 

1,087.32577 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Dibutyl phthalate 

132.83833 

109.90941 

22.92892 

126.25370 

6.58464 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Dichloroethyl ether (Bis[2-chloroethyl]ether) 

7.05000 

3.68018 

3.36982 

6.20388 

0.84612 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Dichlorvos 

0.25750 

0.11363 

0.14387 

0.25334 

0.00417 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Diethanolamine 

86.25437 

78.38355 

7.87081 

85.24043 

1.01393 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Diethyl sulfate 

3.11950 

2.79060 

0.32890 

3.04919 

0.07031 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Dimethyl phthalate 

153.74479 

29.25621 

124.48857 

147.67810 

6.06669 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Dimethyl sulfate 

3.84856 

2.23144 

1.61712 

3.31418 

0.53437 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Epichlorohydrin (l-Chloro-2,3-epoxypropane) 

339.73705 

301.08182 

38.65523 

328.80845 

10.92860 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Ethyl Chloride 

2,187.89548 

1,724.48321 

463.41227 

2,023.60286 

164.29262 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Ethyl acrylate 

159.97414 

151.47688 

8.49726 

153.58316 

6.39099 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Ethyl carbamate (Urethane) chloride 
(Chloroethane) 

9.05249 

7.73941 

1.31309 

8.49508 

0.55742 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Ethylbenzene 

150,602.95817 

108,128.60788 

42,474.35029 

15,993.92246 

3,698.17652 

93,074.62992 

37,836.22926 

Ethylene dibromide (Dibromoethane) 

57.53988 

37.63972 

19.90017 

53.93372 

3.60617 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Ethylene dichloride (1,2-Dichloroethane) 

4,198.60429 

3,018.35098 

1,180.25331 

4,095.94988 

102.65441 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Ethylene glycol 

12,310.94365 

9,807.54261 

2,503.40104 

11,396.21899 

914.72465 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Ethylene oxide 

2,761.74987 

2,340.11324 

421.63663 

1,423.16536 

1,338.58451 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Ethylene thiourea 

1.68367 

1.68367 

0.00000 

1.68367 

0.00000 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Ethylidene dichloride (1,1-Dichloroethane) 

273.34234 

227.28584 

46.05650 

33.16484 

240.17751 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Fine mineral fibers 

0.44862 

0.44862 

0.00000 

0.44862 

0.00000 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Formaldehyde 

347,326.51381 

199,513.35769 

147,813.15612 

30,493.37702 

140,611.16651 

96,816.50995 

79,405.46035 

Glycol ethers 

68,264.06943 

57,179.63996 

11,084.42947 

56,932.15300 

11,331.91643 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Heptachlor 

0.03100 

0.02897 

0.00203 

0.02975 

0.00125 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Hexachlorobenzene 

1.58467 

1.29928 

0.28539 

1.01845 

0.56622 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Hexachlorobutadiene 

15.09100 

11.08324 

4.00776 

14.89069 

0.20031 

0.00000 

0.00000 


7-12 ■ Hazardous Air Pollutants 






National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


Table 7-3 (continued) 


188 HAP Name 

Total National 
Emissions 
(tpy) 

Total URBAN 

Total RURAL 

Total Point 

Total Area 

Mobile: 

Onroad 

Mobile: 

Nonroad 

Hexachlorocyclopentadiene 

4.07400 

3.32985 

0.74415 

3.85667 

0.21734 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Hexachloroethane 

25.54000 

24.54020 

0.99980 

6.19737 

19.34263 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Hexamethylene diisocyanate 

0.13974 

0.13974 

0.00000 

0.13974 

0.00000 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Hexane 

188,727.94715 

142,971.89168 

45,756.05548 

60,034.41637 

23,237.08544 

80,624.60109 

24,831.84425 

Hydrazine 

20.46295 

13.27919 

7.18377 

19.06044 

1.40251 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Hydrochloric acid (Hydrogen chloride [gas only]) 

339,677.12607 

249,698.74905 

89,978.37702 

298,750.97695 

40,926.14911 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Hydrogen fluoride (Hydrofluoric acid) 

33,883.94892 

21,979.39136 

11,904.55757 

31,841.65853 

2,042.29040 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Hydroquinone 

90.38896 

68.97085 

21.41811 

89.44520 

0.94376 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Isophorone 

402.62448 

290.36651 

112.25797 

281.70725 

120.91723 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Lead Compounds 

3,307.14259 

2,738.84886 

568.29373 

1,690.88478 

419.99999 

418.01335 

778.24448 

Maleic anhydride 

215.24860 

191.48367 

23.76493 

212.31816 

2.93044 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Manganese Compounds 

2,908.92074 

2,007.63778 

901.28296 

2,349.91056 

506.98243 

21.68763 

30.34011 

Mercury Compounds 

205.95234 

163.65582 

42.29652 

123.36402 

70.69372 

4.96458 

6.93002 

Methanol 

385,706.55818 

253,285.37433 

132,421.18385 

294,128.87245 

91,577.65111 

0.00000 

0.03462 

Methoxychlor 

0.04800 

0.04800 

0.00000 

0.04648 

0.00152 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Methyl bromide (Bromomethane) 

30,984.83370 

24,978.61034 

6,006.22336 

3,144.75726 

27,840.07644 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Methyl chloride (Chloromethane) 

6,448.11666 

5,420.61004 

1,027.50662 

6,278.24335 

169.87331 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Methyl chloroform (1,1,1-Trichloroethane) 

214,949.10156 

185,432.31956 

29,516.78200 

137,397.75765 

77,551.34391 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Methyl ethyl ketone (2-Butanone) 

207,791.18347 

183,446.29278 

24,344.89069 

188,650.74773 

19,140.23388 

0.18848 

0.01338 

Methyl iodide (lodomethane) 

36.85000 

33.98526 

2.86474 

35.83947 

1.01053 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Methyl isobutyl ketone (Hexone) 

35,693.57825 

29,212.34520 

6,481.23304 

31,062.51426 

4,631.06400 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Methyl isocyanate 

5.48950 

4.93401 

0.55549 

5.31432 

0.17517 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Methyl methacrylate 

1,844.52803 

1,502.97025 

341.55778 

1,662.50712 

182.02091 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Methyl tert-butyl ether 

14,433.46646 

10,632.91143 

3,800.55502 

5,258.32154 

9,175.14492 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Methylene chloride (Dichloromethane) 

124,285.50179 

100,615.53602 

23,669.96577 

87,900.64802 

36,384.85376 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Methylhydrazine 

0.01300 

0.01136 

0.00164 

0.01284 

0.00016 

0.00000 

0.00000 

N,N-Dimethylaniline 

22.57050 

18.95418 

3.61632 

3.08854 

19.48195 

0.00000 

0.00000 

N,N-Dimethylformamide 

3,284.93673 

3,063.75202 

221.18470 

3,175.27412 

109.66261 

0.00000 

0.00000 

N-Nitrosodimethylamine 

19.86900 

18.39534 

1.47367 

19.28712 

0.58189 

0.00000 

0.00000 

N-Nitrosomorpholine 

0.63000 

0.47149 

0.15851 

0.62370 

0.00630 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Nickel Compounds 

1,329.52989 

1,195.97140 

133.55850 

916.23402 

318.41674 

15.54908 

79.33005 

Nitrobenzene 

48.57008 

44.84957 

3.72051 

47.33858 

1.23150 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Parathion 

0.61000 

0.60750 

0.00250 

0.59066 

0.01934 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Pentachloronitrobenzene (Quintobenzene) 

2.45669 

1.73269 

0.72400 

2.40955 

0.04715 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Pentachlorophenol 

6.20350 

2.57703 

3.62647 

2.69357 

3.50993 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Phenol 

11,514.93212 

7,935.49774 

3,579.43438 

11,165.60703 

349.32157 

0.00000 

0.00352 

Phosgene 

4.57351 

3.91680 

0.65671 

4.43914 

0.13437 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Phosphine 

3.13436 

3.13436 

0.00000 

2.85807 

0.27629 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Phosphorus Compounds 

161.98552 

146.90031 

15.08522 

124.97520 

37.01033 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Phthalic anhydride 

468.36056 

425.68662 

42.67394 

437.88687 

30.47368 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Polychlorinated biphenyls (Aroclor6) 

0.04958 

0.03845 

0.01114 

0.02430 

0.02528 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Polycyclic Organic Matter 

17,535.29518 

13,232.81263 

4,302.48255 

7,585.71388 

9,839.12904 

76.98431 

33.46794 

Propionaldehyde 

14,187.80399 

10,363.07906 

3,824.72492 

2,461.84192 

6.07369 

5,283.05624 

6,436.83213 

Propoxur (Baygon) 

0.00500 

0.00500 

0.00000 

0.00478 

0.00022 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Propylene dichloride (1,2-Dichloropropane) 

654.98931 

541.79724 

113.19208 

611.35524 

43.63406 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Propylene oxide 

3,257.81786 

2,939.97556 

317.84229 

2,923.70035 

334.11751 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Quinoline 

26.02550 

24.02860 

1.99690 

25.52454 

0.50096 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Quinone (p-Benzoquinone) 

8.05050 

6.99636 

1.05414 

7.97080 

0.07970 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Radionuclides (including radon) 

7.80214 

7.72292 

0.07922 

7.80214 

0.00000 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Selenium Compounds 

355.37407 

257.83442 

97.53965 

335.16779 

19.66621 

0.00006 

0.54001 

Styrene 

56,139.36148 

41,332.13409 

14,807.22739 

32,326.89290 

3,811.43977 

17,777.70916 

2,223.31966 

Styrene oxide 

0.17600 

0.17548 

0.00052 

0.17242 

0.00359 

0.00000 

0.00000 


Hazardous Air Pollutants ■ 7-13 






National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


Table 7-3 (continued) 


188 HAP Name 

Total National 
Emissions 
(tpy) 

Total URBAN 

Total RURAL 

Total Point 

Total Area 

Mobile: 

Onroad 

Mobile: 

Nonroad 

Tetrachloroethylene (Perchloroethylene) 

128,000.71200 

105,308.90354 

22,691.80846 

22,960.63954 

105,040.07247 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Titanium tetrachloride 

6.24600 

5.71788 

0.52812 

6.12960 

0.11640 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Toluene 

1,108,201.65839 

792,801.42530 

315,400.23308 

195,867.77842 

129,771.36341 

631,796.16151 

150,766.35504 

Total Unspeciated HAPs 

580,281.00000 

508,817.13009 

71,463.86991 

575,265.21000 

5,015.79000 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Total Unspeciated METALS 

64.31000 

54.17513 

10.13487 

63.66690 

0.64310 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Trichloroethylene 

71,998.64943 

63,351.74653 

8,646.90290 

58,240.01715 

13,758.63228 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Triethylamine 

443.52550 

403.50053 

40.02497 

328.89055 

114.63494 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Trifluralin 

10.15027 

9.08566 

1.06461 

9.82151 

0.32876 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Unspeciated Particulate HAPs, Chromium and 
Cobalt 

0.43000 

0.37840 

0.05160 

0.31820 

0.11180 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Vinyl acetate 

3,864.49624 

3,281.14888 

583.34736 

3,730.06177 

134.43448 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Vinyl bromide 

1.43700 

1.32001 

0.11699 

1.42743 

0.00958 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Vinyl chloride 

2,712.08592 

2,389.81085 

322.27507 

2,142.66959 

569.41633 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Vinylidene chloride (1,1-Dichloroethylene) 

223.89224 

208.88484 

15.00740 

176.57818 

47.31406 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Xylenes (mixed isomers) 

702,577.76064 

509,581.85529 

192,995.90535 

130,837.39623 

65,901.91643 

355,204.93935 

150,633.50864 

o-Anisidine 

0.82360 

0.67164 

0.15196 

0.81440 

0.00921 

0.00000 

0.00000 

o-Toluidine 

9.30050 

8.73017 

0.57033 

8.72284 

0.57765 

0.00000 

0.00000 

p-Phenylenediamine 

2.13950 

1.84372 

0.29578 

2.11602 

0.02348 

0.00000 

0.00000 


Note(s): The estimates included in these tables have uncertainties and will improve/change as better data and estimation techniques become available over time. 


7-14 ■ Hazardous Air Pollutants 







National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900-1998 



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CD 


7.0 Hazardous Air Pollutants ■ 7-19 








Table 7-4 (continued) 


National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900-1998 





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7-22 ■ 7.0 Hazardous Air Pollutants 








DRAFT - Do not quote, cite, or distribute. 


National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900-1998 


Table 7-5. Baseline NTI (1990 to 1993) 

188 HAPs by State (Point, Area, On-road, and Non-road) 




188-List HAP Emissions (tpy) 


State 

Total 

POINT 

AREA 

MOBILE: 

On-Road 

MOBILE: 

Non-Road 

Alabama 

163,292 

102,129 

21,852 

30,049 

9,261 

Alaska 

101,454 

2,740 

91,932 

5,310 

1,473 

Arizona 

51,295 

18,029 

11,692 

13,157 

8,418 

Arkansas 

83,581 

41,423 

14,407 

22,292 

5,459 

California 

491,166 

183,989 

86,077 

151,809 

69,292 

Colorado 

66,905 

20,295 

19,672 

19,078 

7,859 

Connecticut 

76,732 

46,829 

10,488 

11,887 

7,528 

Delaware 

17,274 

10,174 

1,985 

3,590 

1,525 

District of Columbia 

6,583 

693 

1,530 

2,981 

1,379 

Florida 

200,415 

57,177 

40,473 

72,504 

30,261 

Georgia 

173,341 

74,634 

28,060 

55,426 

15,221 

Hawaii 

14,850 

1,886 

3,315 

6,803 

2,845 

Idaho 

29,366 

3,522 

13,154 

10,317 

2,372 

Illinois 

245,986 

114,079 

37,523 

67,656 

26,728 

Indiana 

157,964 

82,172 

23,024 

39,949 

12,818 

Iowa 

71,294 

28,967 

10,676 

25,274 

6,377 

Kansas 

72,201 

34,186 

10,949 

21,327 

5,739 

Kentucky 

118,633 

57,740 

17,522 

34,715 

8,656 

Louisiana 

166,927 

111,097 

18,764 

27,307 

9,759 

Maine 

45,066 

22,696 

10,507 

8,967 

2,896 

Maryland 

70,763 

21,631 

13,297 

24,745 

11,089 

Massachusetts 

84,371 

28,126 

17,990 

24,140 

14,116 

Michigan 

214,078 

100,887 

35,290 

56,267 

21,635 

Minnesota 

94,113 

29,861 

21,731 

32,260 

10,260 

Mississippi 

88,063 

39,737 

15,853 

26,576 

5,898 

Missouri 

135,396 

59,561 

22,888 

40,733 

12,214 

Montana 

31,037 

6,186 

14,938 

8,027 

1,887 

Nebraska 

34,778 

10,816 

6,242 

14,041 

3,679 

Nevada 

19,118 

4,130 

4,549 

7,497 

2,941 

New Hampshire 

24,909 

9,869 

5,327 

7,135 

2,578 

New Jersey 

172,543 

106,049 

21,108 

27,488 

17,897 

New Mexico 

35,493 

7,027 

10,637 

14,276 

3,552 

New York 

267,090 

94,383 

52,425 

78,483 

41,798 

North Carolina 

173,488 

77,075 

28,089 

52,870 

15,453 

North Dakota 

16,738 

4,860 

4,545 

5,837 

1,497 

Ohio 

256,532 

125,774 

38,453 

67,255 

25,049 

Oklahoma 

73,465 

23,377 

15,709 

27,110 

7,269 

Oregon 

74,757 

27,695 

21,023 

19,305 

6,734 

Pennsylvania 

227,812 

102,692 

39,771 

57,595 

27,755 

Rhode Island 

17,562 

6,718 

3,134 

5,367 

2,342 

South Carolina 

107,593 

60,878 

15,381 

23,315 

8,019 

South Dakota 

15,272 

2,659 

3,649 

7,344 

1,619 

Tennessee 

195,631 

126,355 

21,835 

36,132 

11,309 

Texas 

506,367 

285,785 

67,534 

113,157 

39,891 

Utah 

104,117 

77,457 

11,191 

11,391 

4,078 

Vermont 

11,928 

1,371 

3,307 

5,928 

1,321 

Virginia 

148,893 

63,274 

25,209 

45,815 

14,595 

Washington 

133,232 

67,143 

23,960 

30,509 

11,620 

West Virginia 

84,607 

52,172 

10,838 

17,478 

4,118 

Wisconsin 

125,329 

57,360 

21,349 

35,349 

11,271 

Wyoming 

16,350 

3,960 

6,547 

4,747 

1,096 

Note(s): The estimates included in these tables have uncertainties and will in- 

become available over time. 

iprove/change as better data and estimation techniques 


Hazardous Air Pollutants ■ 7-23 








National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


DRAFT - Do not quote, cite, or distribute. 


Table 7-6. Baseline NTI (1990 to 1993) 

33 HAPs by State (Point, Area, On-road, and Non-road) 


33 Urban HAP Emissions (tpv) 

State 

Total 

POINT 

AREA 

MOBILE: 

On-Road 

MOBILE: 

Non-Road 

Alabama 

31,634 

9,694 

11,482 

7,226 

3,231 

Alaska 

69,102 

610 

66,610 

1,277 

606 

Arizona 

14,933 

2,290 

6,525 

3,163 

2,955 

Arkansas 

20,631 

4,594 

8,736 

5,361 

1,940 

California 

125,546 

29,954 

34,308 

36,507 

24,777 

Colorado 

23,384 

3,083 

12,817 

4,588 

2,896 

Connecticut 

15,178 

5,973 

3,719 

2,859 

2,627 

Delaware 

3,138 

1,065 

684 

863 

526 

District of Columbia 

1,932 

257 

480 

717 

477 

Florida 

53,073 

8,233 

16,531 

17,436 

10,873 

Georgia 

43,658 

10,016 

14,807 

13,329 

5,507 

Hawaii 

4,577 

378 

1,432 

1,636 

1,131 

Idaho 

14,209 

636 

10,231 

2,481 

861 

Illinois 

51,251 

12,365 

13,003 

16,270 

9,612 

Indiana 

35,442 

12,577 

8,769 

9,607 

4,490 

Iowa 

15,161 

3,065 

3,779 

6,078 

2,240 

Kansas 

16,293 

5,500 

3,659 

5,129 

2,004 

Kentucky 

25,314 

4,826 

9,026 

8,348 

3,114 

Louisiana 

28,369 

9,740 

8,624 

6,567 

3,438 

Maine 

14,483 

3,196 

8,086 

2,157 

1,045 

Maryland 

17,841 

3,013 

4,931 

5,951 

3,946 

Massachusetts 

23,015 

5,122 

6,985 

5,805 

5,103 

Michigan 

49,053 

11,437 

16,397 

13,531 

7,688 

Minnesota 

25,884 

4,095 

10,349 

7,758 

3,682 

Mississippi 

22,873 

5,476 

8,958 

6,391 

2,048 

Missouri 

31,750 

6,778 

10,661 

9,796 

4,515 

Montana 

14,775 

800 

11,366 

1,930 

680 

Nebraska 

7,442 

836 

1,929 

3,377 

1,300 

Nevada 

5,733 

553 

2,253 

1,803 

1,124 

New Hampshire 

7,489 

1,639 

3,215 

1,716 

919 

New Jersey 

27,161 

7,282 

6,910 

6,610 

6,358 

New Mexico 

11,931 

904 

6,316 

3,433 

1,278 

New York 

71,368 

17,392 

20,171 

18,874 

14,932 

North Carolina 

41,541 

8,996 

14,293 

12,714 

5,537 

North Dakota 

3,292 

394 

960 

1,404 

534 

Ohio 

54,289 

15,569 

13,721 

16,174 

8,825 

Oklahoma 

20,979 

4,260 

7,644 

6,520 

2,556 

Oregon 

25,797 

4,361 

14,346 

4,643 

2,448 

Pennsylvania 

54,091 

14,288 

15,979 

13,850 

9,974 

Rhode Island 

3,996 

646 

1,220 

1,291 

839 

South Carolina 

22,818 

6,825 

7,571 

5,607 

2,815 

South Dakota 

3,936 

233 

1,358 

1,766 

580 

Tennessee 

29,904 

7,110 

10,096 

8,689 

4,009 

Texas 

95,759 

28,265 

25,913 

27,212 

14,369 

Utah 

12,322 

2,273 

5,821 

2,739 

1,488 

Vermont 

4,439 

247 

2,288 

1,426 

479 

Virginia 

35,320 

6,153 

12,852 

11,018 

5,297 

Washington 

36,234 

10,519 

14,123 

7,337 

4,255 

West Virginia 

15,959 

3,873 

6,443 

4,203 

1,441 

Wisconsin 

29,971 

7,156 

10,355 

8,501 

3,959 

Wyoming 

7,145 

290 

5,325 

1,141 

389 


become available over time. 


7-24 ■ Hazardous Air Pollutants 








DRAFT - Do not quote, cite, or distribute. 


National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900-1998 


Table 7-7. Baseline NTI (1990 to 1993) 
33 HAPs by Tier 1 


Emissions (tpy) for Tier 1 Reporting Levels 

01 

02 

03 

04 

05 

06 

07 

FUEL 



CHEMICAL 




COMB. 

FUEL 

FUEL 

& ALLIED 


PETROLEUM 

OTHER 

ELEC. 

COMB. 

COMB. 

PRODUCT 

METALS 

& RELATED 

INDUSTRIAL 


NTI Pollutant Description 

UTIL. 

INDUSTRIAL 

OTHER 

MFG 

PROCESSING 

INDUSTRIES 

PROCESSES 

1,1,2,2-Tetrachloroethane 

0.00000 

0.00000 

0.00000 

17.78800 

0.51700 

0.01850 

11.32150 

Ethylene Dichloride 

27.02126 

0.81934 

0.13473 

2,898.72120 

0.00190 

91.81822 

1,105.11616 

Propylene Dichloride 

0.00000 

0.00001 

0.00000 

428.43400 

0.00000 

0.66500 

201.84800 

1,3-Butadiene 

0.51750 

48.74947 

0.94777 

3,277.96648 

530.13000 

152.43093 

11.48258 

Acetaldehyde 

65.84379 

2,300.74122 

33.14230 

6,657.73027 

2.80059 

61.96659 

13,321.32602 

Acrolein 

28.55861 

8.71325 

1.33634 

397.40819 

11.10208 

2.17710 

308.81792 

Acrylonitrile 

0.00042 

0.00000 

0.00000 

2,054.03964 

0.62600 

46.36117 

24.34623 

Arsenic & Compounds 
(inorganic including arsine) 

61.48658 

13.52304 

7.44388 

3.06196 

106.28059 

40.55300 

44.21509 

Benzene 

37.84816 

1,037.31036 

32.46966 

5,079.51076 

2,771.11883 

25,830.05279 

2,076.41741 

Beryllium & Compounds 

7.17599 

0.78875 

2.10119 

0.00056 

0.91142 

0.26163 

0.90331 

Cadmium & Compounds 

4.00910 

2.80706 

3.10371 

9.22847 

131.77837 

6.60694 

15.72217 

Carbon tetrachloride 

0.00613 

0.01472 

0.00032 

637.27465 

0.00000 

48.48671 

4,282.45080 

Chloroform 

0.00540 

0.03079 

0.00986 

1,746.31005 

0.32800 

1.78696 

20,444.24719 

Chromium & Compounds 

76.64199 

14.50598 

7.02827 

68.45539 

137.89791 

42.98149 

431.04281 

Coke Oven Emissions 

0.00000 

0.00000 

0.00000 

0.00000 

826.73000 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Ethylene Dibromide 

0.00314 

0.00345 

0.00014 

28.80755 

0.00007 

11.14484 

7.38021 

Ethylene Oxide 

0.00000 

0.00000 

0.00000 

949.76887 

0.00000 

9.11563 

585.64322 

Formaldehyde 

198.76632 

26,223.73958 

685.19718 

3,285.17222 

134.38944 

753.11352 

9,829.56747 

Hexachlorobenzene 

0.00000 

0.00010 

0.00002 

1.43850 

0.00000 

0.00000 

0.00001 

Hydrazine 

0.00000 

0.00000 

0.10511 

15.51250 

0.50250 

3.28905 

0.63904 

Lead & Compounds 

87.08918 

30.14759 

17.83845 

181.47978 

839.68597 

47.17316 

552.67951 

Manganese & Compounds 

192.16294 

547.20368 

245.54949 

222.08554 

1,187.28718 

50.00145 

357.28506 

Mercury & Compounds 

53.28055 

2.92661 

3.13193 

13.41729 

3.45209 

1.46299 

10.53589 

Methylene chloride 

119.63081 

9.09658 

1.39897 

45,291.70359 

217.60550 

29.39032 

34,111.13747 

Nickel & Compounds 

450.48274 

125.73762 

120.67300 

20.22190 

88.27336 

111.05618 

253.55360 

Polychlorinated biphenyls 

0.00001 

0.00499 

0.00000 

0.00000 

0.00000 

0.00000 

0.00943 

16-PAH 

8.81088 

218.44557 

73.99793 

865.61650 

1,947.12400 

1,317.14250 

1,288.75071 

Tetrachloroethylene 

27.50444 

1.29597 

0.38331 

668.97825 

396.59375 

17.88168 

6,857.57749 

Trichloroethylene 

0.19297 

7.53408 

0.73649 

383.98201 

952.72172 

67.64605 

12,332.57601 

Vinyl chloride 

0.08442 

0.68360 

0.05934 

2,154.41688 

0.00000 

4.65101 

16.80269 

1,3-Dichloropropene 

0.00000 

0.00000 

0.00000 

30.29300 

0.78700 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Quinoline 

0.00000 

0.00000 

0.00000 

12.49950 

9.06150 

4.37950 

0.08500 

2,3,7,8-TCDD TEQ 

0.00011 

0.00009 

0.00004 

0.00000 

0.00020 

0.00000 

0.00007 


Note(s): EPA uses a data base to store these emissions. Since the data base stores very large and very small amounts, the number of decimal 

places displayed are an artifact of that storage and are not intended to suggest true precision of large values. 

The estimates included in these tables have uncertainties and will improve/change as better data and estimation techniques become 
available over time. 


Hazardous Air Pollutants ■ 7-25 








National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


DRAFT - Do not quote, cite, or distribute. 


Table 7-7 (continued) 





Emissions (tpy) for Tier 1 Reporting Levels 




08 

09 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 




WASTE 






SOLVENT 

STORAGE & 

DISPOSAL & 

HIGHWAY 

OFF- 

NATURAL 


NTI Pollutant Description 

UTILIZATION 

TRANSPORT 

RECYCLING 

VEHICLES 

HIGHWAY 

SOURCES 

MISC. 

1,1,2,2-Tetrachloroethane 

0.00000 

0.00000 

218.92334 

0.00000 

0.00000 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Ethylene Dichloride 

16.42611 

7.48812 

50.46048 

0.00000 

0.00000 

0.00000 

0.59675 

Propylene Dichloride 

0.00000 

0.00000 

24.04231 

0.00000 

0.00000 

0.00000 

0.00000 

1,3-Butadiene 

0.04703 

24.35674 

4.43295 

36,657.97824 

10,887.12866 

0.00000 

19,927.39934 

Acetaldehyde 

6.82552 

0.05892 

20.97927 

27,963.87210 

37,330.86678 

0.00000 

49,400.00000 

Acrolein 

1.01533 

0.01852 

24.12055 

5,541.61622 

6,729.03608 

0.00000 

49,606.34473 

Acrylonitrile 

2.26141 

0.07673 

415.88935 

0.00000 

0.00000 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Arsenic & Compounds 
(inorganic including arsine) 

0.01758 

0.57411 

7.78977 

1.74759 

1.04001 

0.00001 

0.69877 

Benzene 

278.28297 

11,967.59638 

629.87446 

207,259.79811 

72,411.29730 

0.00000 

59,936.33896 

Beryllium & Compounds 

0.00463 

0.00435 

0.17002 

0.00000 

0.02000 

0.00000 

0.05160 

Cadmium & Compounds 

0.91489 

0.08872 

24.37846 

0.02668 

0.31011 

0.00003 

0.14613 

Carbon tetrachloride 

0.43361 

1.68034 

70.03906 

0.00000 

0.00000 

0.00000 

0.12523 

Chloroform 

7.04926 

1.76505 

409.65664 

0.00000 

0.00000 

0.00000 

124.09405 

Chromium & Compounds 

51.91006 

0.11269 

12.39676 

27.93068 

25.83012 

0.00038 

0.41570 

Coke Oven Emissions 

0.00000 

0.00000 

0.00000 

0.00000 

0.00000 

0.00000 

936.96000 

Ethylene Dibromide 

4.97356 

1.79958 

3.42732 

0.00000 

0.00000 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Ethylene Oxide 

12.93591 

0.03810 

13.95000 

0.00000 

0.00000 

0.00000 

1,190.29814 

Formaldehyde 

733.66738 

4.94350 

27.75885 

96,816.50994 

79,405.52602 

0.00000 

129,228.16239 

Hexachlorobenzene 

0.00000 

0.00000 

0.00004 

0.00000 

0.00000 

0.00000 

0.14600 

Hydrazine 

0.31678 

0.09795 

0.00002 

0.00000 

0.00000 

0.00000 

0.00000 

Lead & Compounds 

76.84471 

4.82841 

270.92826 

418.03935 

778.25807 

0.00019 

2.14997 

Manganese & Compounds 

29.59095 

5.58907 

11.72747 

21.68763 

30.34058 

0.00210 

8.40762 

Mercury & Compounds 

0.01422 

0.05540 

103.12032 

4.96458 

6.93002 

1.30002 

1.36043 

Methylene chloride 

37,708.01972 

18.39548 

2,125.70399 

0.00000 

16.90000 

0.00000 

4,636.51936 

Nickel & Compounds 

35.68361 

0.14186 

28.06791 

15.54908 

79.33141 

0.00011 

0.75751 

Polychlorinated biphenyls 

0.00014 

0.00102 

0.03399 

0.00000 

0.00000 

0.00000 

0.00000 

16-PAH 

2,038.45400 

729.08450 

97.94350 

75.93000 

33.29000 

0.00000 

8,570.59160 

Tetrachloroethylene 

115,418.70645 

17.23776 

1,000.83989 

9.50000 

77.40000 

0.00000 

3,506.81301 

Trichloroethylene 

57,683.51050 

3.69705 

455.64005 

0.00000 

0.00000 

0.00000 

110.41250 

Vinyl chloride 

0.61149 

0.00001 

534.77648 

0.00000 

0.00000 

0.00000 

0.00000 

1,3-Dichloropropene 

0.00000 

0.00000 

0.00000 

0.00000 

0.00000 

0.00000 

19,896.79000 

Quinoline 

0.00000 

0.00000 

0.00000 

0.00000 

0.00000 

0.00000 

0.00000 

2,3,7,8-TCDD TEQ 

0.00000 

0.00000 

0.00194 

0.00009 

0.00000 

0.00000 

0.00009 


Note(s): EPA uses a data base to store these emissions. Since the data base stores very large and very small amounts, the number of decimal 
places displayed are an artifact of that storage and are not intended to suggest true precision of large values. 

The estimates included in these tables have uncertainties and will improve/change as better data and estimation techniques become 
available over time. 


7-26 ■ Hazardous Air Pollutants 








National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900-1998 






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National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900-1998 


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Figure 7-1. 1996 NTI State Data Summary 


National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1990-1998 



7-42 "7.0 Hazardous Air Pollutants 


Green - states who submitted HAP inventory data 
X - states who submitted revisions by 9/1/99 
* - local agencies who submitted revisions by 9/1/99 




























Figure 7-2. U.S. Counties by Urban and Rural Designation 


National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1990-1998 



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Figure 7-3. Baseline NTI (1990 to 1993) 
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National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1990-1998 



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7-44 ■ 7.0 Hazardous Air Pollutants 


































Figure 7-4. Baseline NTI (1990 to 1993) 
National Emissions of 188 HAPs by Urban vs. Rural 


National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1990-1998 



7.0 Hazardous Air Pollutants ■ 7-45 


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Figure 7-5. Baseline NTI (1990 to 1993) 
National Emissions of 33 HAPs by Urban vs. Rural 


National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1990-1998 



7-46 "7.0 Hazardous Air Pollutants 


Total urban emissions are - 943,000 tons Total rural emissions are - 480,000 tons 

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Figure 7-6. Baseline NTI (1990 to 1993) 

188 HAP Emissions By State and Source Sector 


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Figure 7-7. Baseline NTI (1990 to 1993) 

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Figure 7-8. Summed Baseline NTI (1990 to 1993) Emissions of 188 

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7.0 Hazardous Air Pollutants ■ 7-49 



























































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7-50 ■ 7.0 Hazardous Air Pollutants 




















































Figure 7-10. Summary of Baseline NTI (1990 to 1993) of 33 HAPs 
National Emissions Percentage by Source Sector 


National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1990-1998 


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7.0 Hazardous Air Pollutants ■ 7-51 






































































































[This page intentionally left blank.] 


Chapter 8.0 National Greenhouse Gas 

Emissions 


8.1 WHAT INFORMATION IS PRESENTED 
IN THIS CHAPTER? 

This chapter summarizes the latest information on 
anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions in the United States 
from 1990 through 1997. For a more detailed discussion, the 
reader is referred to the Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas 
Emissions and Sinks: 1990-1991 , April 1999, United States 
(U.S.) Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), EPA 236-R- 
99-003. This report is produced annually and submitted by the 
U.S. Government to the United Nations as part of our 
commitments under the Framework Convention on Climate 
Change (UNFCCC). Readers interested in the international 
efforts to address the problem of climate change through 
negotiation are referred to the home page of the UNFCCC at 
http://www.unfccc.de. Readers interested in more 
background on the science of climate change, global warming 
or greenhouse gases are referred to the Intergovernmental 
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) via their website at 
http://www.ipcc.ch. 

To ensure that the U.S. greenhouse gas emissions 
inventory meets the reporting requirements of the UNFCCC, 
the estimates were calculated using methodologies consistent 
with those recommended in the Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines 
for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories 1 . For most source 
categories the IPCC default methodologies were expanded in 
order to incorporate emission factors and data specific to the 
United States, resulting in a more comprehensive and detailed 
estimate of U.S. emissions. (See Section 8.3.3.) 

8.2 WHAT ARE THE RECENT TRENDS IN 
U.S. GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS? 

Naturally occurring greenhouse gases include water 
vapor, carbon dioxide (C0 2 ), methane (CH 4 ), nitrous oxide 
(N 2 0), and ozone (0 3 ). Several classes of halogenated 
substances that contain fluorine, chlorine, or bromine are also 
greenhouse gases, but they are, for the most part, solely a 
product of industrial activities. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) 
and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) are halocarbons that 
contain chlorine, while halocarbons that contain bromine are 
referred to as halons. Other fluorine containing halogenated 


substances include hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), 
perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride (SF 6 ). 

Total U.S. greenhouse gas emissions rose in 1997 to 
1,813.6 million metric tons of carbon equivalents (MMTCE). 
The single year increase in emissions from 1996 to 1997 was 
1.3 percent (23.1 MMTCE), down from the previous year’s 
increase of 3.3 percent. Overall, emissions of greenhouse 
gases have increased 11 percent above 1990 levels. Table 8-1 
provides a detailed summary of U.S. greenhouse gas emissions 
and sinks for 1990 through 1997. 

In 1997, the primary greenhouse gas emitted by human 
activities was C0 2 . The largest source of C0 2 and of overall 
greenhouse gas emissions in the United States was fossil fuel 
combustion. CH 4 emissions resulted primarily from 
decomposition of wastes in landfills, manure and enteric 
fermentation associated with domestic livestock, natural gas 
systems, and coal mining. Emissions of N 2 0 were dominated 
by agricultural soil management and mobile source fossil fuel 
combustion. The substitution of 0 3 depleting substances and 
emissions of HFC-23 during the production of HCFC-22 were 
the primary contributors to aggregate HFC emissions. PFC 
emissions came mainly from primary aluminum production, 
while electrical transmission and distribution systems emitted 
the majority of SF 6 . 

As the largest source of U.S. greenhouse gas emissions, 
C0 2 from fossil fuel combustion accounted for 81 percent of 
emissions in 1997 when each gas is weighted by its Global 
Warming Potential (see Figure 8-1 in the Inventory of U.S. 
Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1900-1997 for a 
discussion of global warming potentials). Emissions from 
fossil fuel combustion grew by 11 percent (138.8 MMTCE) 
over the 8-year period and were responsible for over three- 
quarters of the increase in national emissions. The annual 
increase in C0 2 emissions from this source was 1.3 percent in 
1997, down from the previous year when emissions increased 
by 3.6 percent. 

The dramatic increase in fossil fuel combustion related 
C0 2 emissions in 1996 was primarily a function of two 
factors: 1) fuel switching by electric utilities from natural gas 
to more carbon intensive coal as gas prices rose sharply due to 
weather conditions, which drove up residential consumption 
of natural gas for heating; and 2) higher petroleum 
consumption for transportation. In 1997, by comparison. 


8.0 National Greenhouse Gas Emissions ■ 8-1 




National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


electric utility natural gas consumption rose to regain much of 
the previous year’s decline as the supply available rose due to 
lower residential consumption. Despite this increase in natural 
gas consumption by utilities and relatively stagnant U.S. 
electricity consumption, coal consumption rose in 1997 to 
offset the temporary shut-down of several nuclear power 
plants. Petroleum consumption for transportation activities in 
1997 also grew by less than a percent, compared to almost 4 
percent the previous year (see Table 8-2). 

Overall, from 1990 to 1997, total emissions of C0 2 , CH 4 , 
and N 2 0 increased by 143.5 (11 percent), 9.7 (6 percent), and 
13.4 MMTCE (14 percent), respectively. During the same 
period, weighted emissions of HFCs, PFCs, and SF 6 rose by 
14.9 MMTCE (67 percent). Despite being emitted in smaller 
quantities, emissions of HFCs, PFCs, and SF 6 are significant 
because of their extremely high global warming potentials and, 
in the cases of PFCs and SF 6 , long atmospheric lifetimes. 
Conversely, U.S. greenhouse gas emissions were partly offset 
by carbon sequestration in forests, which was estimated to be 
11 percent of total emissions. 

Other significant trends in emissions from other source 
categories over the 8-year period of 1990 through 1997 
included: 

• Aggregate HFC and PFC emissions resulting from 
the substitution of ozone depleting substances (e.g., 
CFCs) increased dramatically (by 14.4 MMTCE). 
This increase was partly offset, however, by 
reductions in PFC emissions from aluminum 
production (41 percent) and HFC emissions from 
HCFC-22 production (14 percent), both as a result of 
voluntary industry emission reduction efforts and, in 
the former case, from falling domestic aluminum 
production. 

• Combined N,0 and CH 4 emissions from mobile 
source fossil fuel combustion rose 3.9 MMTCE (26 
percent), primarily due to increased rates of N 2 0 
generation in highway vehicles. 

• CH 4 emissions from the decomposition of waste in 
municipal and industrial landfills rose by 10.5 
MMTCE (19 percent) as the amount of organic 
matter in landfills steadily accumulated. 

• Emissions from coal mining dropped by 5.2 MMTCE 
(21 percent) as the use of CH 4 from degasification 
systems increased significantly. 

• N 2 0 emissions from agricultural soil management 
increased by 8.8 MMTCE (13 percent) as fertilizer 
consumption and cultivation of nitrogen fixing crops 
rose. 


• An additional domestic adipic acid plant installed 
emission control systems in 1997, which was 
estimated to have resulted in a 1.4 MMTCE (27 
percent) decline in emissions from 1996 to 1997 
despite an increase in production. 

8.3 WAS A MORE DETAILED ANALYSIS 
OF INDUSTRIAL EMISSIONS 
CONDUCTED? 

Yes. An analysis of the industrial sector was conducted 
to provide greater resolution on the greenhouse gas emissions 
and energy consumption trends in the industrial end-use 
sector. 

Figures 8-1 through 8-3 present C0 2 emissions data by 
industry end-use sector for the entire United States in the year 
1994. ' 

8.3.1 What Data Were Used in this Analysis? 

This analysis was based on data contained in several EPA 
and Energy Information Administration (EIA) reports: the 
Manufacturing Consumption of Energy 1994, DOE/EIA- 
0512(94); 2 The Annual Energy Review 1997, DOE/EIA- 
0384(97); 3 Emissions of Greenhouse Gases in the United 
States 1997, DOE/EIA-0573(97); 4 and the Inventory of U.S. 
Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990-1996, EPA 236- 
R-98-006. 5 

The Annual Energy Review, EIA and the Emissions of 
Greenhouse Gases, EPA were used to develop national 
estimates of C0 2 for the year 1994. Both of these inventories 
report data on C0 2 emissions caused by both fuel combustion 
and industrial processes, and both were included in this 
analysis. Typically, fossil fuel combustion represents 81 
percent of total U.S. greenhouse gas emissions and 99 percent 
of total U.S. C0 2 emissions, although there is some year-to- 
year variance. Cement manufacture is the largest remaining 
source of industrial C0 2 emissions, and has been estimated to 
contribute about 10 MMTCE to annual U.S. emissions. For 
more information on industrial sources of C0 2 or other 
greenhouse gas emission data, the reader is referred to the 
EPA inventory document or web site at www.epa.gov/ 
globalwarming/inventory. 

The Manufacturing Consumption of Energy (MECS) data 
were used to develop the detailed estimates for the industry 
sector. The MECS data are prepared once every 4 years, thus 
1994 is presented as the most recent year for which the MECS 
data are available. The MECS data contain rich detail on 
manufacturing industries, but no information on the non¬ 
manufacturing industries, such as agricultural activity, mining, 
and construction. The MECS data were merged with estimates 
of total industrial energy use to develop these results. Emission 
estimates were developed using carbon coefficients for various 
fuel types, and for a quality assurance check, were compared 


8-2 ■ 8.0 National Greenhouse Gas Emissions 




National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


with national inventory data. Refer to Annex A of the EPA 
Inventory document for more detail on carbon coefficients for 
fuel types. Table 8-3 presents the actual carbon coefficients 
used in this analysis. 

8.3.2 What are the Results? 

The results of this analysis show that the majority of CO, 
emissions can be attributed to a few major end-use sectors. 

The utility sector, which represents 36 percent of total 
CO, emissions in 1994, supplies energy to industry. 
Emissions resulting from electricity production can thus be 
prorated to industry on the basis of electricity consumption. 
Ideally, this would be done on a regional basis in order to best 
capture the complexity of our nation’s energy supply system 
and to account for variations in carbon emissions per kilowatt 
hour. However, this analysis uses national averages to develop 
the carbon emissions embedded in electricity consumption and 
attributes these emissions to the industries on the basis of their 
electricity demand. 

Figure 8.1 shows total U.S. CO, emissions in 1994. 
Utilities contribute 36 percent of that total, with transportation 
the second largest sector at 30 percent of total CO, emissions. 
Emissions from utilities were estimated at 492 MMTCE in 
1994, with 87 percent of that total resulting from coal 
consumption, 9 percent from natural gas, and 4 percent from 
petroleum fuel consumption. 

Figure 8.2 presents all industrial emissions of C0 2 - both 
manufacturing and non-manufacturing - and the graph was 
developed to account for both “on-site” and “off-site” 
emissions. In this case, on-site emissions are process-related 
emissions such as CO, flux from lime calcination, and off-site 
emissions refer to the emissions that result from fossil fuel 
consumption at power plants supplying electricity to industry. 

Figure 8.3 presents C0 2 emissions for the entire United 
States, and differs from Figure 8.1 in that utility sector has 
been “mapped” into the various end-use sectors that consume 
the electricity generated at utilities. Table 8.4 presents the C0 2 
emissions data in tabular form. 

8.3.3 What Methodologies were Utilized? 

Emissions of greenhouse gases from various sources have 
been estimated using methodologies that are consistent with 
the Revised 19961PCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse 
Gas Inventories .’ To the extent possible, the present U.S. 
inventory relies on published activity and emission factor data. 
Depending on the emission source category, activity data can 


include fuel consumption or deliveries, vehicle-miles traveled, 
raw material processed, etc.; emission factors are factors that 
relate quantities of emissions to an activity. For some sources, 
IPCC default methodologies and emission factors have been 
employed. However, for emission sources considered to be 
significant sources in the United States, the IPCC default 
methodologies were expanded and more comprehensive 
methods were applied. The Annexes of the Inventory of U.S. 
Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990-1997 contain 
additional detail and documentation on the calculations and 
assumptions used to obtain these estimates. This report can be 
found online at vvvvw.epa.gov/globalwarming/inventory. 

Inventory emission estimates from energy consumption 
and production activities are based primarily on the latest 
official fuel consumption data from the EIA/DOE. C0 2 
emissions from fuel combusted in ships or aircraft engaged in 
the international transport of passengers or cargo are not 
included in U.S. totals, but are reported separately as 
international bunkers in accordance with IPCC reporting 
guidelines. 1 CO, emissions from fuel combusted within U.S. 
territories, however, are included in U.S. totals. 

Data on fuel consumption for the United States and its 
territories, carbon content of fuels, and percent of carbon 
sequestered in non-energy uses were obtained directly from 
the EIA/DOE. Fuel consumption data were obtained primarily 
from the Monthly Energy Review 6 and various EIA databases. 
U.S. marine bunker fuel consumption data for distillate and 
residual fuel oil was taken from Fuel Oil and Kerosene Sales. 1 
Marine bunker fuel consumption in U.S. territories was 
collected from internal EIA databases 8 used to prepare the 
International Energy Annual . 9 Jet fuel consumption for 
aviation international bunkers was taken from Fuel Cost and 
Consumption , 10 which are monthly data releases by the 
Department of Transportation’s Bureau of Transportation 
Statistics (DOT/BTS), and unpublished data from the Bureau 
of Economic Analysis (BEA). 11 The data collected by 
DOT/BTS includes fuel consumed for international 
commercial flights both originating and terminating in the 
United States. One-half of this value was assumed to have 
been purchased in the United States/ 1 

IPCC 1 provided combustion efficiency rates for petroleum 
and natural gas. Bechtel" provided the combustion efficiency 
rates for coal. Vehicle type fuel consumption data for the 
allocation of transportation sector emissions were primarily 
taken from the Transportation Energy Databook 12 prepared by 
the Center for Transportation Analysis at Oak Ridge National 
Laboratory (DOE 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998). All 
jet fuel and aviation gasoline were assumed to have been 
consumed in aircraft. 


8.0 National Greenhouse Gas Emissions ■ 8-3 




National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 -1998 


8.4 REFERENCES 

1. “Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories,” Paris: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate 
Change, United Nations Environment Programme, Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development, 
International Energy Agency. 1997. 

2. “Manufacturing Consumption of Energy 1994,” DOE/EIA-0512(94), Energy Information Administration, U.S. 
Department of Energy, Washingotn, DC. 1994. 

3. “Annual Energy Review 1997,” DOE/EIA- 0384(97)-annual, Energy Information Administration, U.S. Department of 
Energy, Washington, DC. July 1998. 

4. “Emissions of Greenhouse Gases in the United States 1997,” DOE/EIA-0573(97), Energy Information Administration, 
U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, DC. 1997. 

5. “Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990-1997,” EPA 236-R-99-003, U.S. Environmental 
Protection Agency. April 1999. 

6. “Monthly Energy Review,” DOE/EIA- 0035(98)-monthly, Energy Information Administration, U.S. Department of 
Energy, Washington, DC. July 1998. 

7. “Fuel Oil and Kerosene Sales 1997,” DOE/EIA-0535(97)-annual, Energy Information Administration, U.S. Department 
of Energy, Washington, DC. 1998. 

8. “Report of Bunker Fuel Oil Laden on Vessels Cleared for Foreign Countries,” unpublished, Form-563, Foreign Trade 
Division, Bureau of the Census, U.S. Department of Commerce. 1998. 

9. “International Energy Annual 1996,” DOE/EIA-0219(96)-annual, Energy Information Administration, U.S. Department 
of Energy, Washington, DC. 1998. 

10. “Fuel Cost and Consumption,” monthly reports, DAI-10, Federal Aviation Administration, U.S. BTS, Department of 
Transportation, Washington, DC. 1998. 

11. “Survey of Current Business,” Bureau of Economic Analysis, Department of Commerce, Table 2A, p. 152, August 1998. 
http://www.bea.doc.gov/bea.dnl.htm 

12. DOE (1993-1998) “Transportation Energy Databook,” (1993-1998), prepared by the Center for Transportation Analysis 
at Oak Ridge National Laboratory for the Department of Energy, Oak Ridge, IL. 


d. See section titled International Bunker Fuels for a more detailed discussion. 


8-4 ■ 8.0 National Greenhouse Gas Emissions 





National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


Table 8-1. Recent Trends In U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks (MMTCE) 


Gas/Source 

1990 

1991 

1992 

1993 

1994 

1995 

1996 

1997 

CM 

O 

o 

1,344.3 

1,329.8 

1,349.6 

1,379.2 

1,403.5 

1,419.2 

1,469.3 

1,487.9 

Fossil Fuel Combustion 

1,327.2 

1,312.6 

1,332.4 

1,360.6 

1,383.9 

1,397.8 

1,447.7 

1,466.0 

Natural Gas Flaring 

2.3 

2.6 

2.6 

3.5 

3.6 

4.5 

4.3 

4.2 

Cement Manufacture 

8.9 

8.7 

8.8 

9.3 

9.6 

9.9 

9.9 

10.2 

Lime Manufacture 

3.3 

3.2 

3.3 

3.4 

3.5 

3.7 

3.8 

3.9 

Limestone and Dolomite Use 

1.4 

1.3 

1.2 

1.1 

1.5 

1.9 

2.0 

2.1 

Soda Ash Manufacture and Consumption 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.2 

1.2 

1.2 

Carbon Dioxide Consumption 

0.2 

0.2 

0.2 

0.2 

0.2 

0.3 

0.3 

0.3 

Land-Use Change and Forestry (Sink) 3 

(311.5) 

(311.5) 

(311.5) 

(208.6) 

(208.6) 

(208.6) 

(208.6) 

(208.6) 

International Bunker Fuels 13 

27.1 

27.8 

29.0 

29.9 

27.4 

25.4 

25.4 

26.6 

ch 4 

169.9 

171.0 

172.5 

172.0 

175.5 

178.6 

178.3 

179.6 

Stationary Sources 

2.3 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.5 

2.5 

2.2 

Mobile Sources 

1.4 

1.4 

1.4 

1.4 

1.4 

1.4 

1.4 

1.4 

Coal Mining 

24.0 

22.8 

22.0 

19.2 

19.4 

20.3 

18.9 

18.8 

Natural Gas Systems 

32.9 

33.3 

33.9 

34.1 

33.5 

33.2 

33.7 

33.5 

Petroleum Systems 

1.6 

1.6 

1.6 

1.6 

1.6 

1.6 

1.5 

1.6 

Petrochemical Production 

0.3 

0.3 

0.3 

0.4 

0.4 

0.4 

0.4 

0.4 

Silicon Carbide Production 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

Enteric Fermentation 

32.7 

32.8 

33.2 

33.6 

34.5 

34.9 

34.5 

34.1 

Manure Management 

14.9 

15.4 

16.0 

16.1 

16.7 

16.9 

16.6 

17.0 

Rice Cultivation 

2.5 

2.5 

2.8 

2.5 

3.0 

2.8 

2.5 

2.7 

Agricultural Residue Burning 

0.2 

0.2 

0.2 

0.2 

0.2 

0.2 

0.2 

0.2 

Landfills 

56.2 

57.6 

57.8 

59.7 

61.6 

63.6 

65.1 

66.7 

Wastewater Treatment 

0.9 

0.9 

0.9 

0.9 

0.9 

0.9 

0.9 

0.9 

International Bunker Fuels 13 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

N 2 0 

95.7 

97.6 

100.1 

100.4 

108.3 

105.4 

108.2 

109.0 

Stationary Sources 

3.8 

3.8 

3.9 

3.9 

4.0 

4.0 

4.1 

4.1 

Mobile Sources 

13.6 

14.2 

15.2 

15.9 

16.7 

17.0 

17.4 

17.5 

Adipic Acid 

4.7 

4.9 

4.6 

4.9 

5.2 

5.2 

5.4 

3.9 

Nitric Acid 

3.3 

3.3 

3.4 

3.5 

3.7 

3.7 

3.9 

3.8 

Manure Management 

2.6 

2.8 

2.8 

2.9 

2.9 

2.9 

3.0 

3.0 

Agricultural Soil Management 

65.3 

66.2 

68.0 

67.0 

73.4 

70.2 

72.0 

74.1 

Agricultural Residue Burning 

0.1 

0.1 

0.1 

0.1 

0.1 

0.1 

0.1 

0.1 

Fluman Sewage 

2.1 

2.1 

2.2 

2.2 

2.2 

2.3 

2.3 

2.3 

Waste Combustion 

0.1 

0.1 

0.1 

0.1 

0.1 

0.1 

0.1 

0.1 

International Bunker Fuels' 3 

0.2 

0.2 

0.2 

0.3 

0.2 

0.2 

0.2 

0.2 

HFCs, PFCs, and SF 6 

22.2 

21.6 

23.0 

23.4 

25.9 

30.8 

34.7 

37.1 

Substitution of Ozone Depleting Substances 

0.3 

0.2 

0.4 

1.4 

4.0 

9.5 

11.9 

14.7 

Aluminum Production 

4.9 

4.7 

4.1 

3.5 

2.8 

2.7 

2.9 

2.9 

HCFC-22 Production 

9.5 

8.4 

9.5 

8.7 

8.6 

7.4 

8.5 

8.2 

Semiconductor Manufacture 

0.2 

0.4 

0.6 

0.8 

1.0 

1.2 

1.4 

1.3 

Electrical Transmission and Distribution 

5.6 

5.9 

6.2 

6.4 

6.7 

7.0 

7.0 

7.0 

Magnesium Production and Processing 

1.7 

2.0 

2.2 

2.5 

2.7 

3.0 

3.0 

3.0 

Total Emissions 

1,632.1 

1,620.0 

1,645.2 

1,675.0 

1,713.2 

1,733.9 

1,790.5 

1,813.6 

Net Emissions (Sources and Sinks) 

1,320.6 

1,308.5 

1,333.7 

1,466.5 

1,504.7 

1,525.4 

1,582.0 

1,605.0 


+ Does not exceed 0.05 MMTCE 

a Sinks are only included in net emissions total. Estimates of net carbon sequestration due to land-use change and forestry activities exclude 
non-forest soils, and are based partially upon projections of forest carbon stocks. 
b Emissions from International Bunker Fuels are not included in totals. 

Note: Totals may not sum due to independent rounding. 


8.0 National Greenhouse Gas Emissions ■ 8-5 









National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


Table 8-2. Annual Percent Change in C0 2 Emissions from Fossil Fuel 
Combustion for Selected Sectors and Fuels 


Sector 

Fuel Type 

1995 to 1996 

1996 to 1997 

Electric Utility 

Coal 

5.7% 

2.9% 

Electric Utility 

Natural Gas 

-14.6% 

8.7% 

Residential 

Natural Gas 

8.1% 

-4.4% 

Transportation* 

Petroleum 

3.4% 

0.3% 


* Excludes emissions from International Bunker Fuels 


Table 8-3. Carbon Coefficients, MMTCE/QBtu (Q=E15) 


Year 

Electricity 

Residual Oil 

Distillate Oil 

NG 

LPG 

Coal 

Coke 

Still Gas 

1994 

50 

21.49 

19.95 

14 

17.01 

25 

25 

20.19 

1995 

50 

21.49 

19.95 

14 

16.99 

25 

25 

20.23 


8-6 ■ 8.0 National Greenhouse Gas Emissions 










National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


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8.0 National Greenhouse Gas Emissions ■ 8-7 









Figure 8-1. U.S. Carbon Dioxide Emissions by Sector (1994) 


National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1990-1998 


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8-8 ■ 5.0 National Criteria Pollutant Estimation Methodologies 


Transportation 

30% 













Figure 8-2. Carbon Dioxide Emissions from Industry (1994) 


National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1990-1998 


if) 

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5.0 National Criteria Pollutant Estimation Methodologies ■ 8-9 

























Figure 8-3. U.S. Carbon Dioxide Emissions by 

End-Use Sector in 1994 


National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1990-1998 



8-10 ■ 5.0 National Criteria Pollutant Estimation Methodologies 

















Chapter 9.0 International Emissions 


9.1 WHAT DATA ARE PRESENTED IN 
THIS CHAPTER? 

This chapter presents the 1996 European emission 
estimates for the pollutants carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen 
oxides (NO x ), sulfur dioxide (SO,), nonmethane volatile 
organic compounds (NMVOCs), methane (CH 4 ), carbon 
dioxide (C0 2 ), nitrous oxide (N,0), and ammonia (NH 3 ), and 
the 1995 Canadian emission estimates for the pollutants CO, 
NO x , volatile organic compounds (VOC), S0 2 , total particulate 
(TP), particulate matter (PM) less than 10 microns in diameter 
(PM 10 ), and PM less than 2.5 microns in diameter (PM 2 5 ). 

9.2 WHAT EUROPEAN EMISSIONS ARE 
PRESENTED? 

In 1993, the European Union launched the European 
Environment Agency (EEA) with a mandate to orchestrate, 
cross-check, and put to strategic use information relevant to 
protecting and improving Europe’s environment. 1 CORINAIR 
(Coordination of Environmental Air) is the air emission 
inventory for Europe The CORINAIR project is part of the 
work program of the EEA. The EEA designated the European 
Topic Center on Air Emissions (ETC/AEM) to perform the 
CORINAIR project by assisting participating countries to 
report their national inventories as required under international 
obligations. Based on these reports the ETC/AEM prepares 
the European air emission inventory and database. 2 

The countries that submitted 1996 data on emissions of 
ozone precursors and acidifying pollutants to CORINAIR 
include Austria, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, 
France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Luxembourg, the 
Netherlands, Norway, Slovenia, and the United Kingdom. In 
addition, the following countries submitted 1996 data on 
emissions of greenhouse gases to the United Nations 
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC): 
Austria, Belgium, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, 
Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Luxembourg, the 
Netherlands, Norway, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, and the 
United Kingdom. 


Table 9-1 shows European national total emissions for 
1996 for the following pollutants: S0 2 , NO x , NMVOC, CH 4 , 
CO, CO, and NH 3 . Tables 9-2 through 9-8 present 1996 
country-level summary data by CORINAIR/EMEP 
(Cooperative Programme for Monitoring and Evaluation of the 
Long Range Transmission of Air Pollutants in Europe) source 
category for S0 2 , NO x , NMVOC, CO, and NH 3 . The 
CORINAIR/EMEP source categories include: 

• Combustion in energy and transformation industries 

• Nonindustrial combustion plants 

• Combustion in manufacturing industry 

• Production processes 

• Extraction and distribution of fossil fuels/geothermal 
energy 

• Solvent and other product use 

• Road transport 

• Other mobile sources and machinery 

• Waste treatment and disposal 

• Agriculture and forestry, land use and woodstock 
change 

• Nature 

Because some countries included estimates of NMVOC and 
CO, emissions in the Nature and the Agriculture categories, 
these tables include a “Comparable Total” line, omitting these 
two categories for each country. 

Tables 9-9 to 9-13 present 1996 country-level summary 
data by EEA source category for CH 4 , CO,, and N 2 0. The 
EEA source categories include Energy, Industry, Transport, 
Agriculture, Waste, and Other. 

9.3 WHAT CANADIAN EMISSIONS ARE 
PRESENTED? 

The criteria air pollutant annual emissions data for Canada 
were provided by Environment Canada 3 for 1995. Emissions 
were provided for CO, NO x , VOC, SO,, TP, PM 10 , and PM, 5 . 
Table 9-14 presents the emission estimates for Canada by 
major source category. Table 9-15 presents the emissions for 
Canada by Province. 


9.0 International Emissions ■ 9-1 





National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


9.4 REFERENCES 

1. European Environment Agency, at http://org.eea.eu.int/. January 2000. 

2. “ETC/Air Emissions” (Database version 2.2, 10/25/99), at http://warehouse.eea.eu.int/, European Topic Centre on Air 
Emissions, European Environment Agency, Copenhagen, Denmark. October 1999. 

3. Environment Canada, at http://www.ec.gc.ca, August 1999. 

4. “Population for the Countries of the World: 1996,” at gopher://gopher.undp.org. United Nations Population Division. 
August 1999. 

5. “World Emissions Tables,” at http://projects.dnmi.no/%7emep/emis_tables/. Meteorological Synthesizing Centre- 
West, EMEP. July 1999. 


9-2 ■ 9.0 International Emissions 





National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


Table 9-1. 1996 Emission Estimates for Europe by Country and Pollutant 
(thousand short tons; except C0 2 [million short tons]) 


Country 

Population 

(million) 

(/> 

O 

ro 

NO x 

NMVOC 

ch 4 

CO 

CNJ 

O 

o 

nh 3 

Armenia 

3.6 

2 

12 

20 

NA 

138 

NA 

0 

Austria 

8.1 

57 

180 

288 

493 

1,125 

NA 

84 

Belarus 

10.3 

271 

191 

362 

NA 

1,339 

NA 

4 

Belgium 

10.1 

265 

368 

357 

NA 

1,369 

NA 

107 

Bulgaria 

8.4 

1,565 

285 

162 

546 

676 

NA 

91 

Croatia 

4.5 

64 

74 

87 

148 

413 

20 

25 

Cyprus 

0.8 

51 

23 

NA 

NA 

NA 

7 

NA 

Czech Republic 

10.2 

1,043 

476 

313 

632 

977 

142 

89 

Denmark 

5.2 

205 

317 

150 

468 

658 

80 

109 

Finland 

5.1 

116 

294 

191 

281 

474 

73 

39 

France 

58.3 

1,136 

1,809 

2,833 

3,142 

9,755 

366 

736 

Germany 

81.9 

1,701 

2,080 

2,069 

3,939 

7,404 

1,013 

715 

Greece 

10.4 

599 

412 

451 

504 

1,470 

101 

NA 

Hungary 

10.0 

742 

216 

165 

NA 

801 

74 

86 

Ireland 

3.6 

162 

133 

114 

811 

338 

40 

141 

Latvia 

2.5 

65 

39 

45 

103 

194 

12 

NA 

Lithuania 

3.7 

103 

72 

96 

314 

344 

21 

40 

Luxembourg 

0.4 

9 

24 

20 

25 

114 

8 

8 

Netherlands 

15.6 

149 

552 

399 

1,359 

995 

209 

161 

Norway 

4.3 

37 

246 

407 

535 

794 

45 

29 

Poland 

38.6 

2,610 

1,272 

844 

2,016 

5,332 

NA 

408 

Russian Federation 

148.1 

2,960 

2,719 

2,840 

3,457 

10,265 

1,653 

826 

Slovakia 

5.3 

250 

143 

116 

330 

381 

50 

55 

Slovenia 

1.9 

121 

77 

NA 

NA 

105 

17 

NA 

Sweden 

8.8 

91 

333 

492 

327 

1,193 

69 

67 

Switzerland 

7.2 

33 

143 

224 

259 

535 

NA 

78 

Ukraine 

51.6 

1,425 

515 

791 

NA 

2,830 

NA 

NA 

United Kingdom 

58.1 

2,223 

2,237 

2,255 

4,094 

5,511 

654 

352 

Yugoslavia 

10.3 

478 

63 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

Total 

586.9 

18,533 

15,305 

16,091 

23,783 

55,530 

4,654 

4,250 


Note(s): NA = not available. Totals presented in this table may not equal the sum of the individual source categories due to rounding. 

Source of population data: United Nations Population Division 4 

Source of emission data: EMEP, Meteorological Synthesizing Centre-West 5 


9.0 International Emissions ■ 9-3 









National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


Table 9-2. 1996 Emission Estimates for Austria and the Czech Republic by 
CORINAIR/EMEP Source Category and Pollutant 

(thousand short tons) 


Austria 

CM 

o 

< f > 

NO x 

NMVOC 

CO 

nh 3 

Combustion in energy and transformation industries 

9 

11 

0 

1 

0 

Nonindustrial combustion plants 

18 

22 

46 

478 

1 

Combustion in manufacturing industry 

10 

17 

1 

6 

0 

Production processes 

15 

21 

25 

291 

0 

Extraction and distribution of fossil fuels/geothermal energy 

1 

0 

4 

0 

0 

Solvent and other product use 

0 

0 

147 

0 

0 

Road transport 

3 

93 

58 

335 

3 

Other mobile sources and machinery 

0 

8 

3 

8 

0 

Waste treatment and disposal 

0 

0 

1 

5 

0 

Agriculture and forestry, land use and woodstock change 

0 

7 

3 

2 

80 

Nature 

0 

1 

181 

0 

1 

Total 

57 

180 

469 

1,126 

85 

Comparable Total 

57 

178 

285 

1,126 

84 


Czech Republic 

tf) 

O 

ro 

NO x 

NMVOC 

CO 

nh 3 

Combustion in energy and transformation industries 

715 

131 

5 

17 

0 

Nonindustrial combustion plants 

186 

49 

48 

366 

0 

Combustion in manufacturing industry 

130 

45 

10 

271 

0 

Production processes 

2 

1 

31 

1 

2 

Extraction and distribution of fossil fuels/geothermal energy 

0 

0 

3 

0 

0 

Solvent and other product use 

0 

0 

131 

0 

0 

Road transport 

6 

191 

72 

263 

1 

Other mobile sources and machinery 

3 

59 

13 

59 

0 

Waste treatment and disposal 

0 

1 

0 

0 

0 

Agriculture and forestry, land use and woodstock change 

0 

0 

0 

0 

87 

Nature 

0 

0 

45 

0 

1 

Total 

1,043 

476 

358 

977 

90 

Comparable Total 

1,043 

476 

313 

977 

89 


Note(s): NA = not available. Totals presented in this table may not equal the sum of the individual source categories due to rounding. 
Negative emissions represent a sink for greenhouse gas. 

Source: ETC/Air Emissions (Database version 2.2, 10/25/99) 2 


9-4 ■ 9.0 International Emissions 














National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


Table 9-3. 1996 Emission Estimates for Denmark and Finland by 
CORINAIR/EMEP Source Category and Pollutant 

(thousand short tons) 


Denmark 

S0 2 

NO x 

NMVOC 

CO 

nh 3 

Combustion in energy and transformation industries 

160 

142 

2 

12 

0 

Nonindustrial combustion plants 

13 

8 

13 

133 

0 

Combustion in manufacturing industry 

13 

16 

1 

7 

0 

Production processes 

3 

1 

12 

0 

0 

Extraction and distribution of fossil fuels/geothermal energy 

0 

0 

8 

48 

0 

Solvent and other product use 

0 

0 

23 

0 

0 

Road transport 

2 

87 

67 

391 

1 

Other mobile sources and machinery 

8 

62 

13 

66 

0 

Waste treatment and disposal 

0 

2 

1 

1 

0 

Agriculture and forestry, land use and woodstock change 

0 

0 

1 

0 

108 

Nature 

0 

0 

10 

0 

0 

Total 

198 

318 

150 

659 

109 

Comparable Total 

198 

318 

139 

659 

109 


Finland 

so 2 

NO x 

NMVOC 

CO 

nh 3 

Combustion in energy and transformation industries 

48 

48 

0 

8 

0 

Nonindustrial combustion plants 

15 

15 

35 

73 

0 

Combustion in manufacturing industry 

27 

36 

0 

47 

0 

Production processes 

23 

8 

12 

11 

1 

Extraction and distribution of fossil fuels/geothermal energy 

0 

0 

10 

0 

0 

Solvent and other product use 

0 

0 

35 

0 

0 

Road transport 

1 

189 

75 

331 

0 

Other mobile sources and machinery 

2 

0 

20 

3 

0 

Waste treatment and disposal 

0 

0 

2 

0 

0 

Agriculture and forestry, land use and woodstock change 

0 

0 

0 

0 

37 

Nature 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

Total 

116 

297 

190 

473 

39 

Comparable Total 

116 

297 

190 

473 

39 


Note(s): NA = not available. Totals presented in this table may not equal the sum of the individual source categories due to rounding. 
Source: ETC/Air Emissions (Database version 2.2, 10/25/99 y 




9.0 International Emissions ■ 9-5 

















National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


Table 9-4. 1996 Emission Estimates for France and Germany by 
CORINAIR/EMEP Source Category and Pollutant 

(thousand short tons) 


France 

S0 2 

NO x 

NMVOC 

CO 

nh 3 

Combustion in energy and transformation industries 

394 

140 

4 

18 

0 

Nonindustrial combustion plants 

95 

118 

237 

2,044 

0 

Combustion in manufacturing industry 

295 

170 

12 

615 

0 

Production processes 

80 

19 

95 

638 

31 

Extraction and distribution of fossil fuels/geothermal energy 

15 

0 

110 

0 

0 

Solvent and other product use 

0 

0 

634 

0 

0 

Road transport 

129 

988 

985 

4,980 

8 

Other mobile sources and machinery 

18 

410 

158 

466 

0 

Waste treatment and disposal 

18 

25 

31 

256 

4 

Agriculture and forestry, land use and woodstock change 

0 

0 

20 

0 

848 

Nature 

0 

3 

413 

84 

0 

Total 

1,044 

1,873 

2,700 

9,100 

891 

Comparable Total 

1,044 

1,870 

2,266 

9,017 

891 


Germany 

so 2 

NO x 

NMVOC 

CO 

nh 3 

Combustion in energy and transformation industries 

931 

377 

8 

129 

3 

Nonindustrial combustion plants 

323 

179 

97 

1,737 

0 

Combustion in manufacturing industry 

315 

247 

9 

742 

1 

Production processes 

68 

14 

139 

649 

9 

Extraction and distribution of fossil fuels/geothermal energy 

17 

0 

46 

0 

0 

Solvent and other product use 

0 

0 

1,113 

0 

1 

Road transport 

34 

999 

600 

3,954 

35 

Other mobile sources and machinery 

13 

265 

57 

193 

0 

Waste treatment and disposal 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

Agriculture and forestry, land use and woodstock change 

0 

0 

0 

0 

666 

Nature 

0 

0 

425 

0 

0 

Total 

1,702 

2,080 

2,495 

7,404 

715 

Comparable Total 

1,702 

2,080 

2,069 

7,404 

715 


Note(s): NA = not available. Totals presented in this table may not equal the sum of the individual source categories due to rounding. 
Source: ETC/Air Emissions (Database version 2.2, 10/25/99) 2 


9-6 ■ 9.0 International Emissions 















National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


Table 9-5. 1996 Emission Estimates for Greece and Ireland by 
CORINAIR/EMEP Source Category and Pollutant 

(thousand short tons) 


Greece 

S0 2 

NO x 

NMVOC 

CO 

nh 3 

Combustion in energy and transformation industries 

435 

91 

4 

8 

0 

Nonindustrial combustion plants 

16 

9 

11 

156 

0 

Combustion in manufacturing industry 

88 

26 

8 

17 

0 

Production processes 

18 

37 

20 

23 

1 

Extraction and distribution of fossil fuels/geothermal energy 

0 

0 

18 

0 

0 

Solvent and other product use 

0 

0 

64 

0 

0 

Road transport 

10 

114 

208 

1,038 

1 

Other mobile sources and machinery 

28 

110 

19 

144 

0 

Waste treatment and disposal 

0 

2 

9 

13 

0 

Agriculture and forestry, land use and woodstock change 

0 

5 

53 

127 

85 

Nature 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

Total 

596 

394 

414 

1,527 

87 

Comparable Total 

596 

394 

362 

1,527 

87 


Ireland 

CN 

o 

(/) 

NO x 

NMVOC 

CO 

nh 3 

Combustion in energy and transformation industries 

102 

46 

0 

4 

0 

Nonindustrial combustion plants 

31 

9 

6 

62 

0 

Combustion in manufacturing industry 

36 

11 

0 

2 

0 

Production processes 

0 

0 

1 

0 

0 

Extraction and distribution of fossil fuels/geothermal energy 

0 

0 

4 

0 

0 

Solvent and other product use 

0 

0 

24 

0 

0 

Road transport 

6 

51 

65 

262 

0 

Other mobile sources and machinery 

2 

10 

2 

6 

0 

Waste treatment and disposal 

0 

0 

0 

1 

0 

Agriculture and forestry, land use and woodstock change 

0 

0 

93 

0 

136 

Nature 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

Total 

178 

127 

196 

337 

137 

Comparable Total 

178 

127 

103 

337 

137 


Note(s): NA = not available. Totals presented in this table may not equal the sum of the individual source categories due to rounding. 
Source: ETC/Air Emissions (Database version 2.2, 10/25/99) 2 


9.0 International Emissions ■ 9-7 















National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


Table 9-6. 1996 Emission Estimates for Luxembourg and the Netherlands 
by CORINAIR/EMEP Source Category and Pollutant 

(thousand short tons) 


Luxembourg 

S0 2 

NO x 

NMVOC 

CO 

nh 3 

Combustion in energy and transformation industries 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

Nonindustrial combustion plants 

1 

1 

1 

9 

0 

Combustion in manufacturing industry 

7 

8 

0 

44 

0 

Production processes 

0 

0 

1 

9 

2 

Extraction and distribution of fossil fuels/geothermal energy 

0 

0 

2 

0 

0 

Solvent and other product use 

0 

0 

4 

0 

0 

Road transport 

1 

11 

9 

45 

0 

Other mobile sources and machinery 

0 

1 

1 

3 

0 

Waste treatment and disposal 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

Agriculture and forestry, land use and woodstock change 

0 

0 

1 

0 

6 

Nature 

0 

0 

1 

0 

0 

Total 

9 

22 

20 

111 

8 

Comparable Total 

9 

22 

18 

111 

8 


Netherlands 

CM 

o 

</> 

NO x 

NMVOC 

CO 

nh 3 

Combustion in energy and transformation industries 

53 

71 

2 

20 

0 

Nonindustrial combustion plants 

3 

52 

13 

115 

0 

Combustion in manufacturing industry 

34 

61 

8 

72 

0 

Production processes 

26 

18 

78 

184 

4 

Extraction and distribution of fossil fuels/geothermal energy 

0 

0 

31 

0 

0 

Solvent and other product use 

0 

0 

94 

0 

1 

Road transport 

12 

233 

148 

536 

0 

Other mobile sources and machinery 

19 

100 

13 

41 

0 

Waste treatment and disposal 

1 

2 

7 

9 

0 

Agriculture and forestry, land use and woodstock change 

0 

17 

3 

19 

155 

Nature 

0 

1 

0 

9 

7 

Total 

149 

554 

399 

1,005 

167 

Comparable Total 

149 

553 

395 

996 

161 


Note(s): NA = not available. Totals presented in this table may not equal the sum of the individual source categories due to rounding. 
Source: ETC/Air Emissions (Database version 2.2, 10/25/99) 2 


9-8 ■ 9.0 International Emissions 














National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


Table 9-7. 1996 Emission Estimates for Norway and Slovenia by 
CORINAIR/EMEP Source Category and Pollutant 

(thousand short tons) 


Norway 

S0 2 

NO x 

NMVOC 

CO 

nh 3 

Combustion in energy and transformation industries 

1 

32 

2 

7 

0 

Nonindustrial combustion plants 

2 

3 

11 

153 

0 

Combustion in manufacturing industry 

6 

9 

1 

8 

0 

Production processes 

23 

10 

20 

44 

0 

Extraction and distribution of fossil fuels/geothermal energy 

0 

0 

232 

0 

0 

Solvent and other product use 

0 

0 

52 

0 

0 

Road transport 

2 

72 

68 

488 

1 

Other mobile sources and machinery 

3 

109 

19 

65 

0 

Waste treatment and disposal 

0 

7 

1 

1 

0 

Agriculture and forestry, land use and woodstock change 

0 

0 

0 

0 

28 

Nature 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

Total 

37 

243 

406 

766 

29 

Comparable Total 

37 

243 

406 

766 

29 


Slovenia 

so 2 

NO x 

NMVOC 

CO 

nh 3 

Combustion in energy and transformation industries 

105 

18 

0 

1 

0 

Nonindustrial combustion plants 

8 

3 

0 

4 

0 

Combustion in manufacturing industry 

6 

3 

0 

0 

0 

Production processes 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

Extraction and distribution of fossil fuels/geothermal energy 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

Solvent and other product use 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

Road transport 

1 

51 

0 

97 

0 

Other mobile sources and machinery 

0 

3 

0 

2 

0 

Waste treatment and disposal 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

Agriculture and forestry, land use and woodstock change 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

Nature 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

Total 

121 

77 

0 

105 

0 

Comparable Total 

121 

77 

NA 

105 

NA 


Note(s): NA = not available. Totals presented in this table may not equal the sum of the individual source categories due to rounding. 
Source: ETC/Air Emissions (Database version 2.2, 10/25/99) 4 


9.0 International Emissions ■ 9-9 
















National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


Table 9-8. 1996 Emission Estimates for the United Kingdom by 
CORINAIR/EMEP Source Category and Pollutant 

(thousand short tons) 


United Kingdom 

CM 

o 

CO 

NO x NMVOC 

CO 

nh 3 

Combustion in energy and transformation industries 

1,598 

613 

9 

228 

5 

Nonindustrial combustion plants 

141 

126 

37 

258 

0 

Combustion in manufacturing industry 

287 

186 

8 

37 

0 

Production processes 

109 

5 

201 

50 

0 

Extraction and distribution of fossil fuels/geothermal energy 

8 

1 

323 

4 

0 

Solvent and other product use 

0 

0 

666 

0 

0 

Road transport 

41 

1,065 

699 

3,637 

11 

Other mobile sources and machinery 

50 

267 

132 

879 

0 

Waste treatment and disposal 

1 

8 

51 

27 

12 

Agriculture and forestry, land use and woodstock change 

0 

0 

88 

0 

329 

Nature 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

Total 

2,235 

2,271 

2,215 

5,121 

357 

Comparable Total 

2,235 

2,271 

2,127 

5,121 

357 


Note(s): NA = not available. Totals presented in this table may not equal the sum of the individual source categories due to rounding. 
Source: ETC/Air Emissions (Database version 2.2, 10/25/99) 2 


9-10 ■ 9.0 International Emissions 









National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


Table 9-9. 1996 Emission Estimates for Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, 
and Denmark by EEA Source Category and Pollutant 
(thousand short tons; except C0 2 [million short tons]) 


Austria 

ch 4 

o 

o 

ro 

N 2 0 

Energy 

0 

13 

0 

Industry 

0 

21 

1 

Transport 

2 

17 

2 

Agriculture 

227 

0 

4 

Waste 

241 

0 

0 

Other 

22 

4 

2 

Total 

492 

54 

8 


Belgium 

ch 4 

CM 

O 

o 

N 2 0 

Energy 

0 

34 

2 

Industry 

3 

45 

18 

Transport 

4 

25 

1 

Agriculture 

389 

0 

12 

Waste 

212 

0 

0 

Other 

51 

37 

7 

Total 

658 

141 

41 


Czech Republic 

ch 4 

C0 2 

N 2 0 

Energy 

NA 

NA 

NA 

Industry 

NA 

NA 

NA 

Transport 

NA 

NA 

NA 

Agriculture 

NA 

NA 

NA 

Waste 

NA 

NA 

NA 

Other 

NA 

NA 

NA 

Total 

NA 

NA 

NA 


Denmark 


CH, 


CO, 


N,0 


Energy 

2 

49 

2 

Industry 

1 

8 

0 

Transport 

3 

13 

1 

Agriculture 

354 

0 

33 

Waste 

81 

0 

0 

Other 

28 

10 

1 

Total 

469 

80 

37 


Note(s): NA = not available. Totals presented in this table may not equal the sum of the individual source categories due to rounding. 
Negative emissions represent a sink for greenhouse gas. 


Source: ETC/Air Emissions (Database version 2.2, 10/25/99) 2 


9.0 International Emissions ■ 9-11 





















National Air Pollutant Emission Trends , 1900 - 1998 


Table 9-10. 1996 Emission Estimates for Estonia, Finland, France, and 
Germany by EEA Source Category and Pollutant 
(thousand short tons; except C0 2 [million short tons]) 


Estonia 

ch 4 

CM 

O 

o 

n 2 o 

Energy 

0 

22 

0 

Industry 

0 

0 

0 

Transport 

0 

2 

0 

Agriculture 

33 

0 

0 

Waste 

34 

0 

0 

Other 

2 

-3 

1 

Total 

70 

20 

1 


Finland 

ch 4 

CM 

O 

o 

n 2 o 

Energy 

2 

30 

3 

Industry 

7 

16 

5 

Transport 

3 

12 

2 

Agriculture 

90 

0 

10 

Waste 

176 

0 

0 

Other 

18 

15 

1 

Total 

298 

73 

20 


France 

ch 4 

CM 

o 

o 

N 2 0 

Energy 

2 

66 

2 

Industry 

9 

109 

91 

Transport 

21 

149 

9 

Agriculture 

1,725 

0 

193 

Waste 

675 

4 

4 

Other 

565 

48 

27 

Total 

2,997 

376 

326 


Germany 

ch 4 

C0 2 

N 2 0 

Energy 

8 

398 

14 

Industry 

9 

182 

99 

Transport 

32 

192 

23 

Agriculture 

1,712 

2 

94 

Waste 

873 

0 

4 

Other 

1,305 

204 

12 

Total 

3,939 

976 

247 


Note(s): NA = not available. Totals presented in this table may not equal the sum of the individual source categories due to rounding. 
Negative emissions represent a sink for greenhouse gas. 

Source: ETC/Air Emissions (Database version 2.2, 10/25/99) 2 


9-12 ■ 9.0 International Emissions 




















National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


Table 9-11. 1996 Emission Estimates for Greece, Ireland, Luxembourg, and 
Netherlands by EEA Source Category and Pollutant 
(thousand short tons; except C0 2 [million short tons]) 


Greece 

ch 4 

C0 2 

n 2 o 

Energy 

0 

50 

3 

Industry 

3 

21 

3 

Transport 

7 

19 

1 

Agriculture 

309 

0 

22 

Waste 

125 

0 

0 

Other 

64 

11 

2 

Total 

505 

101 

33 


Ireland 

ch 4 

co 2 

N 2 0 

Energy 

0 

15 

2 

Industry 

0 

6 

3 

Transport 

2 

7 

1 

Agriculture 

722 

0 

21 

Waste 

112 

0 

0 

Other 

45 

3 

2 

Total 

881 

31 

29 


Luxembourg 

ch 4 

C0 2 

N 2 0 

Energy 

0 

1 

0 

Industry 

0 

4 

0 

Transport 

0 

1 

0 

Agriculture 

19 

0 

1 

Waste 

4 

0 

0 

Other 

3 

1 

0 

Total 

26 

7 

1 


Netherlands 

ch 4 

C0 2 

n 2 o 

Energy 

6 

63 

0 

Industry 

8 

50 

35 

Transport 

7 

37 

8 

Agriculture 

512 

0 

30 

Waste 

526 

2 

1 

Other 

242 

51 

5 

Total 

1302 

204 

79 


Note(s): NA = not available. Totals presented in this table may not equal the sum of the individual source categories due to rounding. 
Negative emissions represent a sink for greenhouse gas. 

Source: ETC/Air Emissions (Database version 2.2, 10/25/99) 2 


9.0 International Emissions ■ 9-13 




















National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


Table 9-12. 1996 Emission Estimates for Norway, the Slovenia, Spain, and 
Sweden by EEA Source Category and Pollutant 
(thousand short tons; except C0 2 [million short tons]) 


Norway 

ch 4 

CM 

o 

o 

N 2 0 

Energy 

3 

11 

0 

Industry 

1 

13 

6 

Transport 

3 

16 

1 

Agriculture 

119 

0 

10 

Waste 

214 

0 

0 

Other 

39 

-14 

0 

Total 

380 

26 

18 


Slovenia 

ch 4 

co 2 

n 2 o 

Energy 

NA 

NA 

NA 

Industry 

NA 

NA 

NA 

Transport 

NA 

NA 

NA 

Agriculture 

NA 

NA 

NA 

Waste 

NA 

NA 

NA 

Other 

NA 

NA 

NA 

Total 

NA 

NA 

NA 


Spain 

ch 4 

O 

O 

ro 

n 2 o 

Energy 

13 

78 

11 

Industry 

7 

70 

15 

Transport 

12 

72 

4 

Agriculture 

1,128 

0 

66 

Waste 

903 

0 

0 

Other 

783 

0 

3 

Total 

2,846 

220 

99 


Sweden _CH 4 _COj_ N 2 Q 


Energy 

2 

16 

2 

Industry 

6 

20 

7 

Transport 

21 

22 

2 

Agriculture 

180 

0 

18 

Waste 

67 

0 

0 

Other 

12 

-22 

1 

Total 

288 

35 

29 


Note(s): NA = not available. Totals presented in this table may not equal the sum of the individual source categories due to rounding. 
Negative emissions represent a sink for greenhouse gas. 

Source: ETC/Air Emissions (Database version 2.2, 10/25/99) 2 


9-14 ■ 9.0 International Emissions 




















National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 -1998 


Table 9-13. 1996 Emission Estimates for the United Kingdom by EEA 

Source Category and Pollutant 
(thousand short tons; except C0 2 [million short tons]) 


United Kingdom 




ch 4 

co ? 

N ? 0 

Energy 




19 

220 

7 

Industry 




14 

116 

78 

Transport 




25 

135 

11 

Agriculture 




1,120 

0 

106 

Waste 




999 

0 

1 

Other 




924 

170 

2 

Total 




3,101 

642 

206 

Note(s): NA = not available. Totals presented in this table may not equal the sum of the individual source categories due to rounding. 


Negative emissions represent a sink for greenhouse gas. 





Source: ETC/Air Emissions (Database version 2.2, 10/25/99) 2 





Table 9-14. 

1995 Emissions for Canada by Major Source Category 




(thousand short tons) 




Source Category 

co 

NO x 

voc 

SO, TP 

PM 10 

PM ?,s 

Industrial Sources 

2,400 

684 

1,037 

2,149 685 

317 

189 

Nonindustrial Fuel Combustion 

1,189 

367 

449 

624 248 

197 

173 

Transportation 

7,394 

1,422 

810 

150 108 

105 

92 

Incineration 

51 

3 

7 

1 3 

2 

1 

Miscellaneous 

16 

1 

606 

0 24 

16 

10 

Open Sources 

7,380 

239 

1,033 

1 16,222 

5,920 

1,209 

Total 

18,880 

2,716 

3,941 

2,925 17,289 

5,920 

1,675 

Note(s): Totals presented in this table may not equal the sum of the individual source categories due to rounding. 



Source: Environment Canada 3 









Table 9-15. 1995 Emissions for Canada by Province 






(thousand short tons) 





Source Category 


CO 

NOx 

VOC 

S02 

TP 

PMio 

_ 

Alberta 


2,206 

720 

841 

670 

5,573 

1,742 

296 

British Columbia 


1,904 

291 

290 

194 

713 

334 

193 

Manitoba 


1,718 

120 

262 

403 

1,085 

449 

147 

New Brunswick 


357 

69 

72 

127 

501 

137 

39 

Newfoundland 


262 

47 

58 

72 

368 

113 

34 

Northwest Territories 


2680 

95 

382 

17 

359 

283 

228 

Nova Scotia 


349 

81 

87 

184 

459 

127 

38 

Ontario 


4,186 

613 

906 

697 

3,867 

1,151 

287 

Prince Edward Island 


59 

9 

11 

3 

100 

27 

5 

Quebec 


2,728 

422 

537 

412 

2,375 

713 

195 

Saskatchewan 


2,173 

236 

459 

145 

1,812 

209 

190 

Yukon 


259 

13 

36 

0 

77 

36 

22 

Total 


18,880 

2,716 

3,941 

2,925 

17,289 

5,920 

1,675 

Source: Environment Canada 3 


9.0 International Emissions ■ 9-15 

















[This page intentionally left blank.] 


Appendix A 


National Emissions (1970 to 
1998) by Tier 3 Source Category 
and Pollutant 


Appendix A National Emissions (1970 to 1998) ■ A-l 





Table A-1. Carbon Monoxide Emissions 
(thousand short tons) 


National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900-1998 


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Surface Coating 
Other Industrial 
Nonindustrial 
Solvent Utilization NEC 







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A-8 ■ Appendix A National Emissions (1970 to 1998) 






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Appendix A National Emissions (1970 to 1998) ■ A-9 






National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900-1998 


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A-10 ■ Appendix A National Emissions (1970 to 1998) 








Table A- 3 . Volatile Organic Compound Emissions 
(thousand short tons) 


National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900-1998 


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National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900-1998 


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A-16 ■ Appendix A National Emissions (1970 to 1998) 


light-duty diesel vehicles 







National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900-1998 


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Appendix A National Emissions (1970 to 1998) ■ A-17 






National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900-1998 


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A-18 ■ Appendix A National Emissions (1970 to 1998) 








Table A- 4 . Sulfur Dioxide Emissions 
(thousand short tons) 


National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900-1998 


CO 

02 

r- 

CM 

CO 

CD 

CM 


<3 

02 

CO 

C\J 

t"- 

02 

r-- 

i— 

C3 


02 


uo 

CM 

K 

CD 

CO 

CO 


,— 

to" 


cm" 









Y— 






CM 

<o 


Y 

CD 

CD 

CO 

N 

02 

02 

T-« 

C\J 

i— 

CD 

CD 

'cj- 

CD 


02 

Y 

CO 

CD 


"M- 

LO 

CD 



id" 

Tt* 

CM" 

■r— 














T— 

3 

r- 

CD 

i— 


CM 

CM 

<3 

02 

CO 

co 

i— 

00 

02 

CD 

"cj- 

T— 

02 

K 

co 

CM 

<D 

■M- 

CO 

CO 


T ~ 

Id" 

ui 

CD 

>— 






Y— 

T_ 







O 

02 

o 


CD 

■M- 

02 

02 

C3 

02 

<3 

CM 

K 

i—- 

CD 

CD 

CM 


02 

02 

CM 

CD 


"M- 

CO 

CO 


i— 

CD" 

id 

CD" 

^— 






Y— 

T ” 

■»-- 






02 

CD 



CM 

'cj- 

CD 

CD 

M" 

00 


O 

K 

CM 

CD 


cp 

r— 

02 

CM 


>D 

■M- 

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K 


T_ 

co" 

id 

CD" 

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o 

CD) 

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o 

0) 

o 

k. 

D 

o 

0) 


K 

CO 

3 

3 

3 


CM 

3 


T— 

CM 


3 

'J- 

3 

CD" 

cm" 

3" 

CM" 



T_ 



3 

CM 

3 

3 

3 

02 

'S- 

'J- 

3 

3 

3 

LO 

■D- 

M- 

3 

CD 

cm" 

3" 

cm" 


T— 






Y-» 

3 

JO 

CD 

CD 

3 

3 


3 


3 

3 

3 

cm" 

cm" 

3 

CM* 


i — 




3 

CD 

3 

3 

3 

3 

O 

3 

■M- 

'3- 

3 

CO 

3 

3 

3 

cm" 

yS 

3" 

3" 



T_ 




3 

CD 

T~- 

3 

■M- 

3 


■M- 

3 

3 

3 

CD 

3 

3 

■D- 


o co 

3 3 

rv. i\ 


oo y 
oo co 
Y Y 


CD 3 
CO CO 

Y Y 


CO 00 

T- O 

Y Y 


3 C\1 
CM 

LD CO 


Y CM 


CM" 


CD Y 
CO CO 

3 


CM 


O CM CO CD CO 
CO CM CO Co ~ 
■O’ O 


3 

3 

D- 


CO 

3 3 

3 

Tj* 

LO 

I''- 

3 

3 

CM 

3 

3 t- 

3 

CT> 

I s - 


3 

i— 


3 


3 


CM 


O Y 3 


t— K. 00 CO 
« O) 


3 


3 

O 

3 

3 

Tt CO 

K 

3 

O 

3 

3 

CM 

3 

CO f- 

N. 

3 

co 

3 

T-» 


3 


3 


CO CO 
00 Y 
T- CO 


O Y 


CD O Co CO Co 

O Q " 


CM 


CO CO CD CM 
CO CM 
3 

co" 


CO 02 CO K 

co CO 
CO 

co" 


lO ^ 'f © 
CD CO co CO 
Y 3 


3 


K 

N 

3 

3 

o 

h- N. 

T~- 


CD 

3 

3 

3 


t- 3 

co 

CO 

3 



3 


3 


r-'- 


oo 

co 

CO 


o y r- 


co 


00 CO 
CM 3 

r^- o 


00 co K 


JP 

3 

T— 

Y~~ 

o 

co 

h- 

CO 

3 

O 

3 

3 I''- 3 

■D- 

N 

1 — 

P 


3 

't 


CM 

3 

o 

CD 


'J- 

3 

3 

K 

r- 


3 



K 

3 

CO 


>— 


oo n 

3 


y 

CM 


CO 


00 


3 Y~ 


Y Y 


CO CO 

to 

CM 

co" 


02 2 

Y Co 
CM 


CO 


co K 00 CO 
co N co “ 
02 


3 

1^ 


CD 

O 

CM 

v— 

3 O 

CM 

T _ 

3 


3 

3 

CM 



t- 3 

(J) 

(J) 

3 


3 



LO 


N. 


CO 


CO 


co CM 
Y 3 
CM 

co" 


CD 02 CO CO CO 

r- 02 


(O © O K 

CO 3 CO co 
D- 3 


3 

3 

K 

3 

3 

3 

o 

h- C\4 

CO 

r- 00 

CO CD CO 

3 

3 

O 

3 

3 

3 

3 


r- N 

G> 

CO 

I s - 

■M- 

3 

00 

3 



3 


K 


CO 


T ~- 


3 


Y— 


3 

3 

o 

3 ■Y 

O 

(O 3 3 

'D- 

£ 

O 

O) 

3 

3 

3 


T- 3 

3 

3 D' 

■Y 

3 

00 


Y-> 


3 

T— 

K 

r— 

3 t- 

Y— 


LO JO 
Y UJ 
CM 

co" 


O©C000©0 )OO©C0 (MM l fl't(DN 
0^©(OpNlOO)O^M--lncON 
CO © N N lo " ID T- K -r- CO 


N «2 lO C0 

f- Y 3 


CM 


co 00 

CM 


CD N CD " CO CO 
r- Y CM 


CD 3 
Y JO 

co" 


Y33K3|^.K00333O2 t --33 
-r-LD33Y3C03YY3 CO -r- CM 
020 K 02 3 ID t— CO CM M 


J- CD 


O CO 

co jo 
o 
co" 


o 
Y 
CO CO 


Y -/ 

00 CM N M 


3 

3 

3 

K. 

3 

3 

CM 

CD Y 

3 

Y 

S 


3 

3 

3 

Y 

CO 

3 

3 

1^. 

3 

5 

3 

Y— 


3 


3 


3 


CM 


K t- CO 
CO OJ M 
02 CM CD CO CO 
CO" ID CO" 


3 Y Y 3 3 

CO CO CM ■>- 

D- K 


CO ^ 

co" 


(Dl0©0)C0(D2t00^On(DOCMWW 
LD02CmK1DO t ~O 00CDC0 CO r^- CD 
00 CO co CO CO f CO CO T- CM 


N ID K O © 
N co CO 


T- N © N © 

t- CD CO CM 


t- o N. CO 3 

T- 00 CO co T- 


LO 


o 

3 

3 

3 

CM 

Y 

3 


O 

3 

CO 

N 

3 

3 

3 

3 

2— 

Y—• 

O 

|Y 

3 

|Y 

a> 

CO 

3 

CM 


3 

D- 

CO 

3 

O 

CO 

K 

3 

3 

3 

O 


O 



CO 

3 


Y 

3 

3 

3 

3 

tY 

Y—■ 

co 

3 

3 


N 

3 

3 



CD 

CM 

3 

Y-— 

O) 

3 

3 

O 

3. 

3 

CD 

3 



T-' 

5 

3 


3 

co 

3 

Y*— 


3 



to 


3 





T- 



T— 

3" 

3" 

y" 

Y— 







3" 

T-T 

Y—• 






















Y-. 

































o 

3 

CO 

y; 


y; 

ID 

y: 

y: 


< 

»— 

I s - 

3 

3 

Y 

Y 

CD 

T-* 


o> 

3 

O 

< 

Y— 

0 



< 

3 


K 

3 

Y— 

CO 

O) 

3 

Y 

r- 

0 

2 



o> 

CO 

S 



z 

3 

3 

CM 

LO 

3 

O 

3 

Y 

Y— 


CD 

O 

3 

3 

CM 

Y-. 

3 

3 

3 

z 

K 


3 

3 


z 


3 

ID 

T— 

Y 

Y—> 

▼” 

NT 

3 ' 




Y— 





3" 

Y— 

1 — 




t-T 



















































LO 

3 

3 

Y— 

3 

0 


3 

3 


< 

O 

O 

K. 

3 

Y 

Y 

3 


Y 

Y—• 

3 

3 

< 

CM 

|Y 

CO 


< 

D- 

O 

3 


co 

r- 

3 

3 

3 

O 

3 

-T— 

3 

Y 


■7 

*— 

r- 

3 

3 

K 

> 

3 


Y 

K 

3 

3 

z 

co 

Y 

CO 




3 

3 

K 

Y—• 

<j> 

3 

l— 


O 

3_ 

LD 

Y^ 




3 

0°. 

3_ 

3 

T— 


1 — 

3 


Y—• 

3 


0 

t— 

CO 




3 

Y — 



r- 

3" 

CD 

o" 

3 

1 — 

y~~ 

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3" 

T-’’ 

1 -* 




T-" 







y-T 













T— 































o 

3 

3 

Y 

3 

3 

CO 

3 

O 


< 

3 

3 

T-* 

3 

3 

Y 

3 

3 

3 

IP 

O 

O 

< 

O 

3 

CO 


< 

3 

3 

3 

3 

O 


3 

3 

K 

^— - 

O 

a> 

K 

3 


7 

3 

3 

K 

3 

3 

> 

3 

JD 

3 


Y 

|Y 

2 

o> 

O 

CO 


2 


3 

Y— 

3 

CM 

o> 

3 


3 

K 

3 

LO 

3 



3 


1 — 

3 

3 


3_ 

3 


Y 1 — 

T— 





CO 




Y 

3 

3 


▼- 

NT 

3 ' 

3 

y" 

i-J* 

T-” 

T-* 




y" 

CO 

3" 




T-" 


















p 

cj 

UJ 
•—J 
UJ 

00 

5 

O 

O 

UJ 

g 


02 

2 

.02 


C/2 

3 

o 

c 

E 

D 




CD 

3 

O 

| a 

I o 


-J 

3 

o 

O CO 

Q 

5 


CD 

O 

o 


-Q 

■O 

3 

CD 


£ 

C 

CD 


— 02 
CD *= 

■g i 
<5 1 


CD 

D 

JO 

£ 

o 

O 

"cO 

c 


QQ 


CD 

3 

O 

c 

E 

3 


CD 

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o 


t o ■= s 


02 


Ul 

g 


CD 

O 

O 


CD 

3 

O 

c 

£ 

3 

5 

-Q 

3 

CD 


02 

'2 

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<*s 

02 

G 

03 


02 

■C 


CD •*- 

| | 

C(2 .CD 

8 "6 


02 

£ 

O 


c 

o 

02 

3 

JD 

£ 

o 

o 

ro 

Q2 E 

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• 4—<1 ' 

O £ 


£ 

£ 


CQ 

5 

o 

o 


£ 


03 


CO 

O 

“ 

03 

O 

O 

O 

15 

15 

15 

c 

c 

c 

0 

0 

0 

D 


D 

*—> 

+—• 


CJ) 

CO 

00 

c 

c 

c 



\ 

ro 

03 

03 

0 

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02 

CD 

0 

£ 

E 

£ 

£ 

E 

£ 

0 

0 

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0 

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ro 

c 

02 

■g 

CD 
02 
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Q. 

02 

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X 

UJ 


-Q 

£ 


§ 

o 

CD 

3 

O 

c 

E 

3 




O 
<n 


■0 

0 

2_ 

0 


-Q 


0 

<: 

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O 

O 

C/2 

3 




02 

O 

c 


C 

0 

■*—> 

c 

02 


E 

3 

0 

;g 

T2 

.to 



'(/) 

C/2 

*6 

'-S 

O 

0 

Q2 




QC 

CC 





Appendix A National Emissions (1970 to 1998) ■ A-19 






National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900-1998 


T3 

<D 

3 

C 

•4-J 

c 

o 

Yt 

I 

< 

0) 

JD 

co 

H 


o 

oj| 

0J 

4-* 

CO 

o 

Q 

O 

3 

o 

(/) 


o) o m t\i 

<?> T- O 

CM CM CM 


<0 Tf 00 <o c\l 

<Jj o o 

CM CM CM 


-M- CM CM 
03 O o 

CM CM CM 


oocM^coOiOM-cocnh- L C)cD l -OT---^cococop^rocooco<x)r^oooco 

co ,; foo'^' , ~co co i- 'f ro O) rt if) co k o M' in co t- 

YJ- CM ^ Y ~ t- f'i CM ■>- CO r-CMf- 


YJ- CM 


CO 

CO 

CO 

^ CM 

03 

CO 

00 [O Tt 

0 CO 0 

y— 

10 

1^- 0 0 0 CO 


<J) 

03 


CO 

00 

co 

0 


CO 

00 T- 

00 



CM 

T— 


CO 

T— 

CM 

T— 



CO CM 00 
Yt CM 


CO 


CM 


K 

uf) 

If} 

1 - 

CO 

03 O M 

O CM 

O O 

CO 

03 

03 

CO 

co CO 

co 

O 

CO 

CO 


CM 


CO 

T~ 

CM 


CO M CO 


<otoo)io'o-oinooM-0'-NiocoiOT-eoO)0)2 

CO O) Cl) 1 ^ CO (O K C\| in in 1 - IO CO CO 

CM i— IT) CO ^ ^ t— CO 


T-cowonnoMocM’- 

N QO CQ o T- CO N 

CM YJ- 1 CM i— 


03 M- 

T- Tt 0 O 00 

CM 

y— 

CO 

CO ^ 

CO CO 

03 03 

m 

co 

cm cn 

00 

00 

CO CO CO 

O 03 

O CM 

00 

CD 

co 

03 

O 

CM CO 

m 

t- K 

03 

03 

r- 

00 

00 

03 

O 

CO 



lo 

CO 

CM 

Y—» 


co 



CM 

Y—« 


CO 

T- 

CM 


CO 


CM 


k'j 

co tj- cm 


co 

CO 

CO 

CM CO 

CO 

£ 

h- CM CO 

O CO 

O CM 

O 

CM O O 

CO 

co 

03 

03 

I"'- 

00 

03 

03 

T— 

1 ^- 

1 ^ 

O 


co 



CM 

Y-» 


CO 


CM 

T“ 

1 — 



COO)COO)'M-T-'M'<OO l 00oKt-lOIOcOCOCOCOCMCMin!00|v.CpoOOa)OOCOCM 
K o 03 F CO CO YJ- CO lfj in T- O) O) t— CO CO 03 T- h~ CD O 

C\| c\| T— ■*— CO CM ■*— i— O- 00'~ T ~CO t— CM i— i— 


005COCOCO^-5t<oi^-CMlO'M-CO’~COOOCOCOcOCpCMrfCMCMtv.CpcOOCOOr^tOCMOO 

co oo F m " to o cj <o m ^ oj oj co 03 a> cm cdcoo 

CM CM CM <© T* CM ■*-* T- Co CM T ~ CO t- CM •>- t- 


co 


CO 


N O rf 

cn t- t- r~ 

CM CM CM 


CM 


CO CM 


m co 


CM CM co 


0 

CM 

CJ 

CM r}- 

CO 

Y— 

Tf 03 CO 

O CD 

0 in 

y— 

0-00 

m 

CO 

CM 

CM 

O 

CO 

CM 

03 



CO 

03 




Y—- 

CO 


Y~~ 

CO 


CM 

Y— 




CO CM 
CO CO 


in 

CO 

K 

CO 

0 

cn in 

os 

CO 

co 

t~ CM 

JO 

K 

r- C£3 CO 

O CO t- 

y- 

CM 

P 5 


CM 


CO 

CD 

1 - CM 

in 

co 


03 

N. 

CJ 

CO 

CD 

K. 

co 

in 

CO 

Y-*» 


Y— 

■o- 



CM 

Y^. 


YJ- 


CM 

Y— 


o o 


03 

03 r- 

2 CD N Tf < O 

CO 

K 

03 

co 

co 

03 

n- CM 

CD CO 

03 

K 

r~ CO 

Yf 

1 — -M- 

CO 7 



CM 

Y 

Y~~ 

CO 

CD 

1 - YJ- 

in 

co 

00 


CO 

CO ^ 


K 

in 

co 

Y^ 


Y— 

YJ- 


T ~ 

CM 


to o m 

CO 


CO 


co r> r~ o o 

CO N O) 

CM 


IO®Tt(OOOSTj<0 (DCMcO l O''C\|'fCMCOi'tJ\iCMo(M5 r-tf)COO'-T-(00 |WoO 
CO-^un'M- F N^in'OCM<0*'Ni-OoO O^oo CM CO 00 03 03 

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Table A-6 (continued) 


National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900-1998 


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National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900-1998 


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-2 


.03 

§ 

05 

E 

1 

o 


-2 

05 

w 

e/5 

a 

05 ^ 
O 05 

S •£ 
2 c 

C 03 
05 05 C 

■2 .c -8 
£ 03 <2 
05 P § 
_ 03 -2 

O) is - 3 = 

1 ? 


is -i 5 'I - a 


05 

C5l& " J 


A-32 ■ Appendix A National Emissions (1970 to 1998) 






Table A-6 (continued) 


National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900-1998 


is 

is 

cm 


00 00 CD Op Op Is 
CO Co CO 


CM h- 03 
CM CO 


K o o in 

CO CM 


T- O 


03 03 
K 


03 



CM CM 


CM 

CO 

<30 

co 

03 

■D- 

CD 

Is 

03 00 

0 


CO 

10 

co 

rs 

CO 

to 

CD 

00 

00 

r^* 

CO 

03 

T— 

CO 

03 

t — 

CD 

00 


UP 

|s 

CM 


CO IS CO If) Co Is 
Co Co t- CO s- 


Cm I'' CO 
CM CO 


o o 

CO 


in 

CM 




CM 

D" 


0 

O CM 

cn 


UP 

Is 


CO 

10 

■X 

fs 

03 

LO 

CD 

03 

CD 

up 

up 

CO 

co 

03 

co 



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co 

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CO 

r-» 


lo" 





co" 





00 


M- 

rs 

CM 


Co CO CM CO Co IS 
CD CD ■>- CO >~- 


C\l 00 00 
CM CO 


CO O O Tt 
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co 

CO 

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Is 

0 

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03 

00 

0 

is 


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UP 

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00 

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03 


CD 

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is 

cm 

up' 

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00 


o_ 

CD 

co" 

CO 

up 

Is 


T— 

CO 


CM 

(s 

CM 


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CO CO 


IS. CO Co 
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up 

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up 

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00 

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up 

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up 

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03 

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03 

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CO ’ T *- 

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CM 

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up 

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CD 

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G) 

00 


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UP 

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co" 

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CO CO »- CO *» 


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M - 


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f^. 

CD 

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O CO 

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co 

0 

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0 

00 

03 

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T-s 


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co 

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03 

CO 

CO 


CO 

CD 

K 

co 

03 


CD 

vf 





CD" 

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co 

|s 

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co M- op cp 
co co Is 


o> 


CM CO 
CO CO 


If) co o o 

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CP D- 


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CO 


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0 

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00 


CO CM 

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co 

00 


CO 

rs 

CM 


CO "M- 00 
CO CO 


y- M- 
CO CO 


CO co O CO 
CM M- 


1- " O cm CM 
Co CO 


D- 

a> 

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CD 


0 co 

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0 

CO 

50 

03 

Q 


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CO 

O 

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0 

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CO 

0 

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00 


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IQ* 

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co' 





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co co Is 


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CM M- 


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co 

iG 

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CM 

0 

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CD* 





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03 

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f CP 

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£ a 5 

a s § 


c* t 

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3 3 

a= xp 
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3 Q. O 


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g 

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t: 

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r 

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c 
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II 
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E 1 

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© 

x: 


0 ~ 

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0 -n 

11 

o 

* — 

* 0 ) . 


Appendix A National Emissions (1970 to 1998) ■ A-33 








Table A-7. Lead Emissions 
(short tons) 


National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900-1998 


00 

JO 

y 

jo 

co 

CO 

y 

Y 

ca 

05 

CO 

05 

CO 


ID 

CO 

o 

co 

U5 

co 

Y^» 

eg 


Y 

Y*» 

ca 

O 

CD 

JO 

in 

£ 

CT5 

<o 

CO 

co 

Y— 



T^ 


»- 








Y— 









o 


K 

r- 

K 

05 

















■o- 









Y 


Y— 

y — 

T— 

y— 































l^ 

Y 

y 

co 

CO 

CO 

o 

ca 

ca 

co 


05 

co 

Y-. 

CVJ 

eg 

Y- 

co 

CO 

co 

Y'- 

Y— 

CVJ 

eg 

Y— 

ea 

O 

CD 

00 

CO 

CO 

<J) 

CO 

CO 

co 

Y~ 



y— 


»— 








Y» 









o 


00 

00 

co 

o> 

















•*}■ 









Y 


Y— 

T- 

Y— 

T_ 































CO 

1— 

CO 

eg 

CO 

lO 

CO 

co 

ca 

CO 

CO 

05 

CO 

Y*— 

CO 

eg 

Y— 

co 

LO 

co 

Y-. 

Y— 

CO 

eg 

Y-» 

y; 

o 


N. 

e~ 

K 

05 

Co 

CO 

co 

Y—- 













Y— 








> 

o 


CO 

CD 

CO 

O) 

















■Y 









Y 


Y~ 

Y— 

Y— 

T ~ 































CO 

K 

o 

ca 

co 

CO 

ix 

tx 

ca 

CO 


ca 

CO 

Y*«. 


co 

Y-. 

CO 

Y 

eg 

Y-— 

Y- 

CO 

eg 

Y^» 

•Y 

O 

00 

Cp 

CO 

cp 

O) 

lo 

CO 

co 

y — . 





»— 


1—- 






Y- 








> 

O 


CO 

CD 

CO 

05 


























Y 


Y— 

Y— 

Y— 

T— 































Y 

eg 

o 

o 

co 

CO 

eg 

eg 

ca 

05 


ca 

CO 

Y-. 

LO 

y 

Y*» 

Co 

CO 

eg 

Y-» 

o 


co 

Y-^ 

y: 

O 

oo 

CO 

CD 

CO 

05 

Co 

CO 

co 

T— 


i — 

t— 


i— 








Y— 








> 

O 


05 

05 

05 

05 


























Y 





Y— 































00 

JM 

o 

ca 

Co 

CO 

eg 

C\J 

ca 

05 

Tf 

ca 

CO 

Y— 

in 

y 

Y-» 

Co 

Y 

eg 

Y~- 

Y— 

■'T 

CO 

Y*» 

y: 

O 

00 

eg 

eg 

SJ 

05 

CO 

CO 

co 

Y-- 



t — 


r~ 








Y~ 








> 

O 


05 

05 

05 

05 

















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Y 





T— 































eg 

p5 


co 

Y 

Y 

eg 

eg 

ca 

CO 


ca 

co 

Y— 


co 

Y— 

Y 

Y 

eg 

Y»» 

o 


co 

Y— 

•Y 

O 

N- 

S3 

co 

S3 

05 

lo 

y 

eg 

1— 


i— 

y— 


Y— 

T— 







Y- 








> 

O 


05 

05 

05 

05 

















■o- 









Y 





' r ~ 































y— 


co 

co 

XL 

Y 

CO 

CQ 

ca 

CO 

LO 

ca 

CO 

Y~- 

co 

eg 

Y~y 

CO 

CO 

eg 

Y**. 

o 


co 

Y»» 

Y 

O 

05 

eg 

eg 

S3 

05 

co 

y 

eg 

y-~ 



y^ 


Y~ 








Y— 








> 

O 


co 

co 

CO 

05 

















Y 








^— 

Y 


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T “ 































o 

Y 

CO 

co 

Y 

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co 

CO 

ca 

CO 


ca 

CO 

Y-~ 

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co 

Y— 

00 

Y 

co 

Y— 

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co 

Y^ 

Y 

O 

O 

CO 

co 

CO 

05 

CO 

Y 

eg 

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i— 

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> 

O 


CO 

co 

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05 

















'Y 








* — 

Y 


Y— 


Y—■ 

,— 































05 

lx 

CO 

2P 

Y 

Y 



ca 

CO 


Q 

co 

Y^ 


co 

Y— 

ca 

Y 

co 

Y— 

Y^ 

*vj- 

co 

Y— 

Y 

O 

eg 

co 

CD 

CO 

CO 

CO 

Y 

eg 

i— 


c\j 

eg 


Y- 


y —■ 






Si! 








> 

O 


CO 

co 

CO 

05 

























^ —. 

Y 


Y— 

Y — 

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00 

1° 

CO 

oo 

Y 

Y 

o 

O 

ca 

05 


ca 

CO 

Y~~ 

m 

co 

Y^ 

CO 

in 

co 

Y~- 

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in 

Y 

Y~~ 

Y 

O 

CD 

CO 

CD 

CO 

co 

co 

Y 

eg 

Y^ 


eg 

eg 




Y^. 






Si! 








> 

O 


CO 

CO 

CO 

05 

















Y 









Y 


Y— 


Yyy 

Y — 































CO 

Y 



co 

CO 

co 

co 

ca 

o 

C\J 

co 

co 

eg 

00 

K 

t— 

Y— 

CD 

Y 

Y—. 

Y—» 


co 

Y*» 

Y 

O 


CO 

00 

00 

oo 

CO 

CO 

co 

Y^ 


i— 



CO 

CVJ 

y — 






eg 








> 

O 

-i— 

Y"» 


Y— 

05 

















Y 









Y 


Y^ 

Y— 

Y—■ 

r— 































O 

05 

CO 

K 

SP 

05 

y 

y 

ca 

ca 

LD 

i— 

ca 

Y 


Y 

Y— 

Y~ 

eg 

co 

eg 


o 

05 

Y^ 

Y 

O 

05 

Y 

Y 

Y 

oo 

eg 

05 

lO 

eg 


co 

CO 


<o 


CO 

Y-» 



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Y~ 








> 

00 


ca 

o 

ca 

05 

Y- 
















Y» 









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Y~ 


Y-Y 

Y — 

















Y 









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co 

o 

05 


co 

05 

_ 

o 

Y~» 


o 

ca 

eg 

K 

CD 


Y- 

Si! 

CD 

co 

eg 

N 

Y— 

ca 

Y^ 

Y 

O 

CD 

ca 

o 

ca 

N 

cp 

00 

Y~- 

co 

V- 

Y 

y 


N 

CD 

y 

Y—■ 


i— 

Y-» 


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T— 

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> 

O 


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05 

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05 

ca 

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lx 

ca 

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00 

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co 

K 

CT> 

IX 

Y—■ 

JM 


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co 

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r» 

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eg 

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cp 

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ca 




$ 



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£ 

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a 

o 

c 

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a 

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c 

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a 

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05 

c 

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£ 

c 

CO 


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co 

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QC 

i* 

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1 g 

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CO 

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CO 

c 

la 

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1— 

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CO 

a 

o 

c 

E 

a 


a 

o 

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-Q 

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a 

CO 


CO 

c 

CD .2 

1 .2 
;§> to 
c 

CD S 

l a 


s 

c 

co 


CD 

E 

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1 

co 

2 


CD 

1 V. 

s ® 

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CO 

c 

CD 

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CD 

cc 

Q. 

CD 

o 

X 

m 

JD 

E 

o 

o 


CD 


1 

h» 

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o 

DC 

0. 

a 


- 75 <* o -S 


CD 

a 

LL. 

6 

CO 


.ca 

c 

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TD 

CO 

CD 

DC 


-J 

08 

3 

I 

o 


05 


CO 

g 

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CD 


g 
c 

CO 

S? .9> 
o 


£ 

c 

CD 

.1 

CL 

■O 

c 

co 

■§ 

§ 

■Q 

CO 


A-34 ■ Appendix A National Emissions (1970 to 1998) 






National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900-1998 


co 

CO 

T- 

co 

cp 

CO 

CO 

CO 

K 

1— 

Y-» 

C\J 

<3 

Y 

03 

co 

co 

CT) 

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r^- 

CM 

CM 


O 

00 

Y-. 



t}- 



Y-x 

K 

Y 

CD 

<3 

n 

co 



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Y-x 



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T - 















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00 

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00 

0 

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00 

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s 


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00 

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CO 



Y-x 

CO 

Y 

CD 

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n 

CO 



Y 





10 





CO 

T— 

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T“ 















co 

U) 

CO 

00 

SN 

00 

Y 

cp 

CO 

CO 

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00 

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CO 

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CO 

CM 



K 

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CT) 

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co_ 

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CO 

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CO 

Y-x 

co 

C 3 

00 

03 

O) 

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co 

N. 

CM 

Y— 

co 

K 

C 3 

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CM 



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CT) 

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Appendix A National Emissions (1970 to 1998) ■ A-39 








[This page intentionally left blank.] 


Index 


Acid Deposition Control.3-5 

acid rain . 1-2, 4-1 

Acid Rain Program. 1-3, 3-2, 3-8, 4-2 

Aerometric Information Retrieval System . 5-5, 5-11 

aerosol .1-2 

AFS . 5-5, 5-6 

air toxic emissions . ES-1, 1-1, 7-1,7-2, 7-3, 7-5 

AIRS. 5-5,5-11 

AIRS Facility Subsystem .5-5 

allother.1-3, 2-2, 2-3 

ammonia . . ES-1, ES-3, 1-1, 2-1,2-3, 2-16, 2-23, 3-1,3-16, 3-29, 5-2, 9-1, 

A-37 

ammonium nitrate . 1-2, 2-3, 2-4, 3-14, A-37 

ammonium sulfate . 1-2,2-3,2-4,3-14 

anthropogenic. ES-3, 2-8, 3-3, 6-1, 7-3, 8-1 

AP-42.4-4,5-11,7-3,7-6 

area source ... 2-2, 2-3, 2-6, 3-11,4-6, 5-1, 5-5, 5-7, 5-8, 5-10, 5-11, 5-12, 
5-15, 7-1, 7-2, 7-3, 7-4, 7-5, 7-6, 7-15, 7-23, 7-24, 7-45, 7-46, 

7-47,7-48,7-51 

BEA.4-2,4-3,5-5,5-7,5-8,5-11,5-12,8-3,8-4 

BEIS2.6-1 

biogenic . ES-1, 1-6, 2-3, 3-3, 3-16, 6-4, A-39 

biogenic emissions. ES-3, 1-1, 1-4, 6-1, 6-2, 6-3, 6-5, 6-6 

Biogenic Emissions Inventory System .6-1 

bituminous coal .. 2-1, 2-2, 3-10, 3-12, 3-13, 3-14, 3-15, A-7, A-19, A-23, 

A-29, A-34 

Budget Trading Program .3-2 

Bureau ofEconomic Analysis .4-2, 5-5, 5-10, 5-11, 8-3, 8-4 

CAA.ES-1, ES-2, 1-1, 3-1, 3-2, 3-5, 4-2, 7-1, 7-2, 7-3, 7-4, 7-5, 7-6 

CAAA.ES-2, 1-3, 3-2, 3-5, 3-6. 3-7, 4-1, 4-3, 5-5 

California Air Resources Board .5-9 

carbon dioxide .ES-1, 8-1, 8-5, 8-8, 8-9, 8-10, 9-1 

carbon monoxide ... ES-1, ES-3, ES-4, ES-6, 1-1, 1-5, 2-1,2-9, 2-17, 3-1, 

3-2, 3-9, 3-17,5-2, 9-1, A-2 

carcinogen .7-1 

carcinogenesis .1-2 

cardiovascular disease .1-1, 1-2, 7-1 

CEM.1-3,5-11,5-14 

Census Bureau . 7-4, 7-6 

Census of Agriculture.2-5, 5-8, 5-11 

CFCs.3-3, 8-1, 8-2 

CH 4 .ES-1, 3-3, 8-1, 8-2, 8-5, 9-1, 9-3, 9-11, 9-12, 9-13, 9-14, 9-15 

chemical and allied product manufacturing ... 1-6, 2-2, 2-3, 2-6, 2-7, 3-1, 
3-3, 3-5, 3-6, 3-9, 3-10, 3-11, 3-12, 3-13, 3-14, 3-15, 3-16, 4-3, 

4-5,4-7,5-11 

chlorofluorocarbons . 3-3, 8-1 

Clean Air Act.ES-1, 1-1, 3-1,4-1, 7-1 

Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 .ES-2, 1-3, 3-2, 4-1 

CNG. 5 ' 2 < 5 ' 4 

CO . ES-1, ES-2, ES-6, 1-1, 1-3, 1-4, 2-1, 2-2, 2-4, 2-6, 2-8, 3-1,3-2, 3-4, 
3-5, 3-6, 3-7, 3-8, 3-9, 3-17, 3-18, 3-19, 5-2, 5-3, 5-4, 5-5, 5-11, 

5-12, 9-1, 9-4, 9-5, 9-6, 9-7, 9-8, 9-9, 9-10, 9-15, A-2 
C0 2 ... ES-1, 8-1, 8-2, 8-3, 8-5, 8-6, 9-1, 9-3, 9-11,9-12, 9-13, 9-14, 9-15 

Code of Federal Regulations. ^ 

compressed natural gas. 

continuous emission monitoring. 


5-2 

1-3 


CORINAIR. 9-1,9-4 

criteria pollutant .... ES-1, ES-3, 1-1, 1-3, 1-4, 2-4, 3-1, 5-1,5-2, 5-3, 5-5, 

5-6, 5-7, 7-6, 9-1 

Department of Agriculture .ES-2, 5-8 

Department of Energy. 3-8, 4-3, 5-8, 5-10, 8-4 

desulfurization .3-5, 3-7,4-1, 4-3, 4-4,4-11 

DOE. 4-3,5-8,5-10,5-11,8-2,8-3,8-4 

Economic Growth Analysis System .2-5, 5-3, 5-10 

EEA .9-1,9-11,9-12,9-13,9-14,9-15 

EF1G. 1-2, 1-4 

EGAS.2-5, 5-3, 5-4, 5-7, 5-8, 5-9, 5-10, 5-11 

EIIP.5-9 

electric utility.ES-1, 1-3, 2-1,2-2, 2-3, 3-4, 7-1, 7-2, 8-1, 8-2 

EMEP.. 9-1, 9-4 

Emission Factor and Inventory Group . 1-2, 2-4 

Emission Inventory Improvement Program .5-9 

Emission Tracking System.1-3 

Emission Trends Report.1-2, 1-3, 2-5 

environmental impacts.7-1 

Environmental Protection Agency .. ES-1, 1-1,2-2, 3-1,4-1, 5-1, 6-1, 7-1, 

8-1 

EPA . ... ES-2, 1-1, 1-2, 1-3, 1-4, 2-2, 2-3, 2-4, 3-1, 3-3, 3-5, 3-6, 3-7, 3-8, 
4-1, 4-2. 4-3, 4-4, 5-1, 5-4, 5-5, 5-6, 5-8, 5-9, 5-10, 6-1, 7-1,7-2, 

7-3, 7-4. 7-5. 7-6, 8-1, 8-2, 8-3 

ETC/AEM .9-1 

ethane. 1-4, 3-3 

ETS. 1-3,5-14 

European Environment Agency .5-10, 9-1, 9-2 

eutrophication.1-1 

FAA . 5-3, 5-4 

Factor Information Retrieval. 7-3,7-6 

Federal Aviation Administration.5-3, 5-10, 8-4 

Federal Government.3-1, 3-17, 3-18 

Federal Information Processing Standards .5-7 

Federal Power Act .4-2 

FIPS .5-7 

FIRE. 7-3, 7-6 

fossil fuel ... ES-2, 1-3, 3-4, 3-5, 4-1,4-2, 8-1, 8-2, 8-3, 8-5, 8-6, 9-1, 9-4, 

9-5, 9-6, 9-7, 9-8, 9-9, 9-10 

Framework Convention on Climate Change.8-1 

fuel combustion . 1-6,2-3,3-1,3-4,3-5,4-3,5-8,7-5,8-2,9-15 

electric utility.1-6, 2-2, 2-3, 2-6, 2-7, 3-4, 3-9, 3-10, 3-11,3-12, 

3-13,3-14, 3-15,3-16, 8-6, A-22 
industrial .... 1-6,2-2,2-3,2-6,2-7,3-3,3-4,3-9,3-10,3-11,3-12, 

3-13,3-14,3-15,3-16, 4-5, 4-7 
other.. 1-6, 2-2, 2-6, 2-7, 3-4, 3-9, 3-10, 3-11, 3-12, 3-13, 3-14, 3-15, 

3-16 

fugitive dust ... ES-1, ES-2, ES-3, ES-4, 1-4, 1-6, 2-4, 2-5, 3-3, 3-8, 3-12, 

3-13,3-14,3-26, 3-27,7-29 

GACT.7-1,7-2, 7-5, 7-6 

GCVTC .4-2,5-1,5-5,5-9,5-11,5-13 

GDP.ES-1, 3-2 

generally achievable control technology.7-1 

geogenic .... ES-4, 1-4, 1-6, 3-3, 3-13, 3-14, 7-28, 7-31, 7-34, 7-37, 7-40, 

A-18, A-27, A-33 

geothermal energy.9-1, 9-4, 9-5, 9-6, 9-7, 9-8, 9-9. 9-10 


Index ■ 1 
















































































National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


Grand Canyon Visibility Transport Commission .4-2, 4-6, 5-1, 5-11 

Great Depression .ES-1,3-4 

greenhouse gas emissions . . ES-1, 1-1, 8-1, 8-2, 8-3, 8-4, 8-5, 8-7, 8-8, 9-1, 

9-4, 9-11,9-12,9-13,9-14, 9-15 

gross domestic product. ES-1, 3-2, 3-21 

gross state product .5-7 

growth factor . 5-3, 5-4, 5-5, 5-7, 5-8, 5-9, 5-11 

GSP .5-7 

HAPs .. ES-1, 7-1, 7-2, 7-3, 7-4, 7-5, 7-6, 7-7, 7-9, 7-10, 7-14, 7-15, 7-18, 
7-22, 7-23, 7-24, 7-25, 7-27, 7-30, 7-33, 7-36, 7-39, 7-45, 7-46, 

7-47,7-48,7-49,7-50, 7-51 

hazardous air pollutants .ES-1, ES-3, 7-1, 7-2, 7-7 

HCFCs .8-1, 8-2, 8-5 

HDDV .2-1,3-14,5-9, 5-10, A-32 

Health, Education, and Welfare .3-1 

heavy-duty truck.3-6 

heavy-duty vehicle .5-9 

MFCs .ES-1, 8-1, 8-2, 8-5 

historic emissions. ES-2, 1-4, 1-5, 3-1, 3-2 

hydrocarbon .3-2,3-3,3-17,3-18 

hydrochlorofluorocarbons.8-1 

hydrofluorocarbons.ES-1, 8-1 

industrial.1-3, 2-1, 2-2, 2-3, 3-4, 3-5 

industrial processes. ES-1, 2-3, 3-1, 3-5, 3-6, 8-2 

industrial S0 2 .4-5, 4-6, 4-7 

Integrated Urban Air Toxics Strategy. 7-2, 7-4, 7-5, 7-6, 7-10 

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change .8-1 

international emissions. 1-1, 9-1 

IPCC.8-1, 8-3, 8-4 

landing-takeoff operations .5-3 

LDGVs. 2-1, 2-2, A-32 

LDT .3-6,3-17,3-18 

LDV. 3-6,3-17 

lead . ES-1, ES-3, ES-4, ES-6, 1-1, 1-2, 2-1, 2-3, 2-15, 3-1, 3-12, 3-15, 5-4, 

7-2, 7-8, 7-10 

light-duty gasoline vehicle .1-6, 2-1,2-2 

light-duty truck.3-6, 3-17, 3-18 

light-duty vehicle. 3-6,3-17 

liquefied petroleum gas.5-2, A-5, A-10, A-17, A-27, A-33 

LPG .5-2, 5-4, 8-6 

MACT .2-2, 2-5, 5-8, 7-1, 7-2, 7-3, 7-4, 7-5, 7-6 

major source . . 1-1, 3-2, 4-2, 4-8, 4-10, 7-1, 7-2, 7-4, 7-5, 7-11, 7-45, 7-47, 

7-48,7-51,9-1,9-15 

Manufacturing Consumption of Energy.8-2 

maximum achievable control technology.2-2, 5-8, 7-1 

metals processing . . 1-6, 2-2, 2-3, 2-6, 2-7, 3-1, 3-5, 3-9, 3-10, 3-11, 3-12, 

3-13,3-14, 3-15,3-16,4-5,4-7 

methane . ES-1, 1-4, 3-3, 8-1, 9-1 

methodology. ES-4, 1-2, 1-3, 3-5,4-1, 5-7, 8-1, 8-3 

metropolitan statistical area .7-4 

miscellaneous . .. ES-4, 1-3, 1-4, 1-6, 2-1,2-2, 2-3, 2-6, 2-7, 3-1, 3-3, 3-8, 

3-9, 3-10, 3-11, 3-12, 3-13, 3-14, 3-16 

MOBILE model .5-1,5-9,5-10,5-11 

mobile sources . .. ES-1, 1-1, 5-1, 7-1, 7-2, 7-3, 7-4, 7-5, 7-15, 7-23, 7-24, 

7-45,7-46,7-47,7-48,7-51 

molecular weight .1-4 

N20 .ES-1, 8-1, 8-2, 9-1 

NAA.ES-2, 1-3, 5-5, 5-7 

NAAQS . ES-2, 1-1, 3-1, 3-2, 3-3, 3-5 

NAPAP. 1-3, 2-4, 4-2, 4-6, 5-3, 5-4, 5-11, 5-12, 5-13 

National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program . 1-3, 2-4, 4-2, 5-3 

National Air Pollution Control Administration.3-1 

National Ambient Air Quality Standards . ES-2, 1-1, 3-1 

National Emission Trends. 1-2, 3-1, 4-2, 5-1 

national emissions .... ES-4, ES-5, ES-6, 1-2, 3-1, 3-3, 3-4, 3-5, 3-7, 3-8, 

7-44, 7-45,7-46, 7-51 

National Particulate Study .3-3 

National Toxics Inventory.7-3 


natural gas .. 3-10, 3-12, 5-2, 5-8, 8-1, 8-2, 8-3, 8-5, 8-6, A-5, A-8, A-10, 

A-17, A-20, A-27, A-33 

natural sources . . ES-4, 1-4, 1-6, 2-3, 2-6, 2-7, 3-3, 3-11, 3-13, 3-14, 3-16 
NET .. 1-2, 2-3, 3-14, 4-2, 4-6, 5-1, 5-3, 5-4, 5-5, 5-6, 5-7, 5-8, 5-9, 5-11, 

5-12 

neurological impairments. 1-2, 7-1 

new source performance standards.ES-2, 3-2 

NH 3 .... ES-1, 1-1, 1-2, 1-4, 2-1, 2-3, 2-4, 2-7, 2-8, 3-1, 3-2, 3-3, 3-4, 3-6, 
3-7, 3-8, 3-14, 3-19, 5-2, 5-4, 5-5, 5-7, 5-8, 9-1, 9-3, 9-4, 9-5, 

9-6, 9-7, 9-8, 9-9, 9-10, A-37 

nitrate. 1-1, 1-2 

nitric oxide. ES-3, 1-1, 1-4, 6-1, 6-3, 6-4 

nitrogen dioxide. 1-1, 1-4 

nitrogen oxides .... ES-1, ES-3, ES-4, ES-5, 1-1, 1-4, 2-1, 2-2, 2-10, 2-18, 
3-1, 3-10, 3-17, 3-18, 3-21, 3-23, 4-1, 5-1, 6-5, 9-1, A-7 

nitrous oxide.ES-1, 8-1, 8-8, 9-1 

NMVOCs.9-1,9-3,9-4,9-5,9-6,9-7,9-8,9-9,9-10 

NO .1-1, 1-4, 6-1 

N0 2 . 1-1, 1-4 

non-road engines and vehicles . ES-2, 1-3, 1-6, 2-1,2-2, 2-3, 2-6, 2-7, 3-1, 
3-6, 3-7, 3-8, 3-9, 3-10, 3-11, 3-12, 3-13, 3-14, 3-15, 3-16, 5-2, 
5-3, 5-4, 5-7, 5-11, 5-12, 5-13, 7-3, 7-15, 7-23, 7-24, A-5, A-9, 

A-17, A-22, A-26, A-32, A-36, A-39 

nonattainment area. ES-2, 1-3, 5-5 

nonfugitive dust .. ES-3, ES-5, 1-4, 2-3, 2-13, 2-14, 3-3, 3-4, 3-6, 3-7, 3-8 

nonmethane . 3-3,3-18 

nonmethane volatile organic compounds .9-1 

nonreactive organic compounds.1-1 

NONROAD model.5-2,5-3,5-4,5-11 

NOx . . ES-1, ES-5, 1-1, 1-2, 1-3, 1-4, 2-1, 2-2, 2-3, 2-4, 2-6, 2-8, 3-1,3-2, 
3-3, 3-4, 3-5, 3-6, 3-7, 3-8, 3-14, 3-17, 3-18, 3-19, 4-1, 5-1,5-2, 
5-3, 5-4, 5-5, 5-7, 5-8, 5-9, 5-10, 5-11, 5-12, 5-14, 9-1, 9-3, 9-4, 

9-5, 9-6, 9-7, 9-8, 9-9, 9-10, 9-15 

NPI.3-3 

NSPS .ES-2, 3-2, 3-5, 3-6 

NTI . 7-3,7-4.7-5,7-6,7-7,7-11,7-15,7-23,7-24,7-25,7-27,7-42,7-44, 

7-45, 7-46, 7-47, 7-48, 7-49, 7-50, 7-51 

0 3 . 1-1, 1-2, 3-2, 3-3, 8-1 

Office of Mobile Sources .3-18, 5-2, 5-10 

Office of Transportation and Air Quality . 5-2,7-3 

OMS. 5-2, 5-10 

on-road vehicles . ES-2, 1-3, 1-6, 2-1, 2-2, 2-3, 2-4, 2-6, 2-7, 3-1, 3-3, 3-6, 
3-7, 3-9, 3-10, 3-11, 3-12, 3-13, 3-14, 3-15, 3-16, 4-3, 4-4, 4-11, 
5-4, 5-7, 5-8, 5-9, 5-11, 7-3, 7-5, A-4, A-9, A-16, A-21, A-26, 

A-32, A-35, A-38 

organic compounds. 1-4, 3-3 

OTAG.4-2, 4-6, 5-1, 5-3, 5-5, 5-9, 5-11, 5-12, 5-13 

OTAQ.5-2, 5-3, 5-4, 5-10, 5-11, 7-3 

other industrial processes .. 1-6, 2-2, 2-3, 2-6, 2-7, 3-1, 3-5, 3-6, 3-9, 3-10, 
3-11, 3-12, 3-13, 3-14, 3-15, 3-16, 4-5, 4-7, 7-25, A-3, A-8, 
A-13, A-20, A-24, A-30, A-35, A-38 

oxygen .1-1 

oxygenated fuel. ES-1, 2-1, 5-2 

ozone . 1-1, 1-2, 3-2, 5-5, 8-1 

Ozone Transport Assessment Group.4-2, 5-1, 5-11 

PART5 .4-4 

particulate matter .. ES-1, ES-3, ES-4, ES-5, 1-1, 1-2, 2-1, 2-3, 2-13, 2-14, 

3-1, 5-2 

parts per million.3-2 

Pb .. ES-1, ES-2, ES-6, 1-1, 1-2, 1-3, 1-4, 2-1, 2-3, 3-1, 3-2, 3-3, 3-4, 3-6, 

3-7, 3-8, 5-4, 5-6, 5-11,7-2 

PEI.1-2, 1-3, 2-4, 4-6, 5-1, 5-5, 5-6, 5-7, 5-9, 5-11, 5-12, 5-13, 5-15 

perfluorocarbon .ES-1, 8-1 

periodic emission inventory .1-2, 2-4, 5-1 

petroleum and related industries . 1-6, 2-2, 2-3, 2-6, 2-7, 3-1, 3-3, 3-5, 3-6, 
3-9, 3-10, 3-11,3-12, 3-13, 3-14, 3-16, 4-5, 4-7, 7-25, 7-27, 
7-30, 7-33, 7-36, 7-39, A-3, A-8, A-12, A-20, A-24, A-30, A-37 

PFCs.ES-1, 8-1 

photochemical oxidants . 1-1, 1-5, 3-2, 3-3 


2 ■ Index 




















































































National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 - 1998 


plain language . 1-3 

PM .ES-1, ES-2, 1-1, 1-2, 3-5, 3-6, 5-2, 5-3, 5-8, 9-1 

PM 10 . . ES-1, ES-3, ES-4, ES-5, 1-1, 1-3, 1-4, 2-1,2-3, 2-4, 2-7, 2-8, 2-13, 
3-1,3-2, 3-3, 3-4, 3-5, 3-6, 3-7, 3-8, 3-13, 3-18, 3-19, 3-26, 5-2, 

5-3, 5-4, 5-5, 5-11,9-1,9-15, A-23 
PM 1S . . ES-1, ES-3, 1-1, 1-2, 1-4, 2-1,2-3, 2-4, 2-7, 2-8, 2-14, 2-21,2-22, 
3-1,3-2, 3-3, 3-4, 3-6, 3-7, 3-8, 3-14, 3-19, 3-27, 5-2, 5-3, 5-5, 

5-11, 9-1, 9-15, A-29 

point source . . 1-4, 2-1,2-2, 2-3, 2-4, 2-6, 3-2, 4-6, 5-1,5-5, 5-6, 5-7, 5-8, 

5-11,5-12, 5-15. 7-1,7-15, 7-23, 7-24, 7-46 

ppm . 3-2,3-7,3-17,3-18 

precursor. ES-1, 1-1, 1-2, 5-6, 9-1 

President Clinton . 1-3 

RACT.3-2 

reasonably available control technology.3-2 

reformulated gasoline. ES-1, 2-1,5-2 

Regional Economic Models, Inc. 5-7, 5-10 

Regulatory Support Document.5-4 

Reid vapor pressure . ES-1,2-1,5-2 

REM1 . 5-7, 5-8 

residential wood combustion .... ES-2, 1-6, 2-4, 3-3, 3-4, 3-9, 3-11,3-13, 

3-14,7-27 

respiratory illness .1-1, 1-2, 7-1 

RFG .5-2 

RSD . 5-4,5-10 

rural . 2-4,7-4,7-5,7-11,7-15,7-43,7-44,7-45,7-46 

RVP . ES-1,5-2, 5-3 

SCC . 1-4,1-6,5-2,5-3,5-4,5-5,5-7,5-8,5-11,5-12 

section 406 . 4-1, 4-3 

SEDS .1-3 

SF 6 .ES-1, 8-1,8-2, 8-5 

short tons . . . ES-3, ES-5, ES-6, 1-4,2-6,2-8,3-9,3-10,3-11,3-12,3-13, 

3-14, 3-15, 3-16, 4-3, 4-7, 6-2, 6-3 

SIC.4-3, 5-7, 5-8, 7-4 

SIP .1-2, 3-2, 5-1 

SO, . ES-1, ES-2, ES-5, 1-1, 1-2, 1-3, 1-4, 2-1,2-2, 2-3, 2-4, 2-6, 2-8, 3-1, 
3-2, 3-3, 3-4, 3-5, 3-6, 3-7, 3-8, 3-14, 3-19, 4-2, 4-4, 4-7, 5-1, 
5-2, 5-4, 5-5, 5-11,5-14, 9-1,9-3, 9-4, 9-5, 9-6, 9-7, 9-8, 9-9, 

9-10, 9-15 

solvent utilization . . 1-6, 2-2, 2-3, 2-6, 2-7, 3-1, 3-5, 3-9, 3-10, 3-11,3-12, 
3-13, 3-14, 3-16, 4-3, 4-5, 4-7, A-3, A-8, A-13, A-21, A-25, 

A-31, A-38 

source category . . ES-1, 1-1, 1-4, 1-6, 2-1, 2-2, 2-3, 2-6, 3-2, 3-8, 4-7, 5-2, 

5-8,7-3,7-5,7-6,9-14.9-15 

Source Classification Code. 1-4, 5-2 

spatial emissions.2-4, 6-1, 7-4 

sport utility vehicle.3-6 


Standard Industrial Classification. 4-3, 7-4 

Standard Industrial Classification code .5-7 

State Energy Data System. 1-3 

State Implementation Plan .1-2, 3-2, 5-1 

stationary sources.1-1, 3-2, 3-4, 7-1,7-2, 7-4, 7-5, 8-5 

storage and transport.1-6, 2-2, 2-3, 2-6, 2-7, 3-1, 3-5, 3-9, 3-10, 3-11, 

3-12, 3-13, 3-14, 3-16, 4-3, 4-5, 4-7 

sulfate. 1-2, 3-7 

sulfate aerosols.1-2 

sulfur .3-7 

sulfur dioxide . ES-1, ES-3, ES-4, ES-5, 1-1,2-1,2-2,2-12,2-20,3-1,3-7, 

4-1,5-1,9-1 

sulfur hexafluoride.ES-1, 8-1 

SUV .3-6 

Tier 1 ... 1-3, 1-4, 1-6, 2-2, 2-3, 3-5, 3-13, 3-14, 3-15, 3-16,4-5, 7-5, 7-6, 

7-25, 7-26, 7-27 

Tier 2 . 1 -4, 1 -6, 4-5, 5-5, 7-5, 7-6, 7-27 

Tier 3 .1-4, 3-12, 4-5, A-l, A-22 

Tier 4 .1-4 

Tier I standards. 2-1, 3-7 

Tier II standards .1-4, 3-6, 3-7 

Tier level. 1-4 

Title IV.3-2, 3-5, 4-1,4-2 

total particulate.9-1 

total suspended particulate.3-2 

toxic air pollutants .7-1 

Toxics Release Inventory .7-3 

TRI.7-3 

TSP. 3-2, 3-5 

UNFCCC .8-1 

unleaded gasoline.3-7 

urban . . . 7-1,7-2,7-4,7-5,7-10,7-11,7-15,7-24,7-27,7-43,7-44,7-45, 

7-46 

USDA. ES-2, 5-8, 5-11 

utilities .2-1 

vehicle miles traveled.ES-1, 2-1, 3-2, 5-11 

VMT.ES-1,2-1, 3-2, 3-6, 3-7, 5-11 

VOC .... ES-1, ES-2, ES-5, 1-1, 1-3, 1-4, 2-1, 2-2, 2-4, 2-6, 2-8, 3-1, 3-2, 
3-3, 3-4, 3-5, 3-6, 3-7, 3-17, 3-18, 5-2, 5-3, 5-4, 5-5, 5-8, 5-11, 

6-1, 9-1 

volatile organic compounds . ES-1, ES-3, ES-4, ES-5, 1-1,2-1, 2-11,2-19, 

3-1,3-17, 3-18, 5-2, 6-1,6-2, 6-4, 6-6, 9-1 
waste disposal and recycling . . 1-6, 2-2, 2-6, 2-7, 3-1,3-5, 3-9, 3-10, 3-11, 

3-12, 3-13, 3-14, 3-15, 3-16, 4-5, 4-7 
wind erosion.ES-4, 1-4, 1-6, 2-3, 3-8, 3-13, 3-14, A-27, A-33 


Index ■ 3 





























































TECHNICAL REPORT DATA 

(PLEASE READ INSTRUCTIONS ON THE REVERSE BEFORE COMPLETING) 


1. REPORT NO. 2. 

EPA-454/R-00-002 

3. RECIPIENT’S ACCESSION NO. 

4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE 

NATIONAL AIR POLLUTANT EMISSION TRENDS REPORT, 

1900-1998 

5. REPORT DATE 

3/1/2000 

6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE 

USEPA/OAQPS/EMAD/EFIG 

7. AUTHOR(S) 

SHARON V. NIZICH, ANNE A. POPE, LAUREL M. DRIVER (USEPA) 

8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO. 

9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS 

U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY 

OFFICE OF AIR QUALITY PLANNING AND STANDARDS 

EMISSION FACTOR AND INVENTORY GROUP (MD-14) 

RESEARCH TRIANGLE PARK, NC 27711 

10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO. 

11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO. 

68-D7-0067 

12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS 

DIRECTOR, OFFICE OF AIR QUALITY PLANNING AND STANDARDS 

OFFICE OF AIR AND RADIATION 

US ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY 

RESEARCH TRIANGLE PARK, NC 27711 

13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED 
TECHNICAL 1900-1998 

14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE 

EPA/200/04 

15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES 

16. ABSTRACT 


The Emission Factor and Inventory Group (EFIG) annually produces a publication on the trends in emissions of criteria 
pollutants. The emission estimates developed and included in the Emission Trends database have been utilized to 
support development of the National Particulates Inventory, in support of recent evaluations of the particulate matter 
and ozone NAAQS, in support of the National Air Toxics Assessment, and to satisfy requirements under CAAA406(g). 

Included in this report are criteria, toxics, biogenics, greenhouse gases, and international criteria emission estimates. 


KEYWORDS/DESCRIPTORS: CRITERIA AIR POLLUTANT, EMISSIONS TRENDS, GREENHOUSE GASES, 
BIOGENICS, AIR TOXICS, INTERNATIONAL EMISSIONS. 


17. KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS 


a. DESCRIPTORS 

AIR EMISSION TRENDS OZONE 

AIR POLLUTION PARTICULATE MATTER 

AMMONIA SULFUR DIOXIDE 

BIOGENICS TOTAL SUSPENDED PARTICULATE 

CANADA TOXIC COMPOUNDS 

CARBON MONOXIDE VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS 

NITROGEN DIOXIDE 

NITROGEN OXIDES 

b. IDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS 

AIR POLLUTION CONTROL 

AIR POLLUTION RESEARCH 
AIR POLLUTION TRENDS 

c. COSATI FIELD/GROUP 

18. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT 

UNLIMITED 

UNCLASSIFIED 

21. NO. OF PAGES 

236 

UNCLASSIFIED 

22. PRICE 







































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